Compare and Contrast

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Nobody believes more fervently in the American Dream than Willy, yet the dream has somehow eluded him. Now he is sixty years old, a beaten and discouraged traveling salesman, with nothing to show for a lifetime of hard work but a small house on a crowded street where grass doesnt grow anymore and apartment houses block his view.

Rustling about upstairs are Willys grown sons, Happy and Biff, home for a visit. Their presence in the house causes Willy to reminisce on happier times; times when their growing strength and athletic feats - especially Biffs - were a source of pride and joy to him; times when it seemed certain that his kids would go out and conquer the world. In this heightened and reflective state Willy speaks aloud to his boys as if the two youngsters he fondly remembers from the past had materialized in the room.

WILLY Thats just what I mean. Bernard [the son of Willys friend] can get the best marks in school, yunderstand, but when he gets out in the business world, yunderstand, you are going to be five times ahead of him. Thats why I thank Almighty God youre both built like Adonises. Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want.

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Willys philosophy is sound and fool-proof, he feels, but, unaccountably, it hasnt worked for him, nor for his favorite son, Biff. Ever since graduation from high school when he inexplicably ignored a prestigious scholarship offer to play football for the University of Virginia, Biff had acted like a restless vagabond, moving from one place and one job to another, unable to get a hold on life. He had also had a run-in with the police stealing, they said.

Willy paces the kitchen floor and strolls around the yard, trying to understand - how could a boy with such promise have gone so wrong? However, the father is never quite able to admit any responsibility for Biffs problems. I never told him anything but decent things, he rationalizes.

During the boys visit, Willy can not help but argue with Biff. His sons dreams are simply unacceptable. Biffs latest scheme is to own a ranch somewhere in the West. He figures that Bill Oliver, a man he used to work for, will loan him the ten thousand dollars to buy it.

Later that evening, Biff and Happy bound down the stairs to talk with their mother, Linda. Willy comes in from the garden just in time to hear Biff mention his plans to go see Oliver He always said hed stake me. Id like to go into business, so maybe I can take him up on it. Then, seeing Willy, and anxious to please his father, Biff stammers on, emphasizing that it is a business he wants, not necessarily a ranch.

Retiring to bed that night, Willy is convinced that Biff is off to a new start. God Almighty, hell be great yet, he says to Linda. A star that magnificent can never really fade away!

When Willy awakes the next morning, Biff and Happy are gone - Happy to his job, Biff to speak with Bill Oliver. Willy, still feeling the optimism of the ni ht before, is now determined to also make his own life better. First thing hell do is go to New York to tell his boss that he wants to be taken off the road; lifes too short to be away from home all the time. He and his wifes future promises to be happy. Its changing, she tells him excitedly. Willy, I feel it changing!

But, once again, things dont work out the way Willy plans. His boss, Howard - who had been named by young Willy himself after Will had just started to work for Howards father - is not interested in the salesmans problems. When Willy asks that his traveling be cut down, Howard summarily fires him. Broken, Willy stops to see his old neighbor-buddy Charley in his office. But Willy has always been jealous of Charley; and his friend isnt much comfort to him now.

CHARLEY-. Howard fired you?

WILLY That snotnose. Imagine that. I named him. I named him Howard.

CHARLEY Willy, whenre you gonnarealize that them things dont mean anything? You named him Howard, but you cant sell that. The only thing you got in this world is what you can sell. And the funny thing is is that youre a salesman, and you dont know that.

Near emotional collapse, Willy leaves and drives to Franks Chop House, where Biff and Happy are to meet him.

Earlier, Biff, in trying to see Bill Oliver, had waited and waited in the reception area, but finally gave up late in the afternoon. However, before leaving, out of spite he had stolen Olivers fountain pen. But through this experience Biff discovered something deep and previously hidden about himself, and he is anxious to communicate this new-found understanding to his father. But Willy isnt interested in hearing what Biff has learned I was fired, and Im looking for a little good news to tell your mother, because the woman has waited and the woman has suffered. Biff starts, then stops, never really able to get the truth out.

Soon, Bill and Happy leave the restaurant, arm-in-arm with two girls Happy had managed to pick up. But Willy remains at the Chop House. There on the dirty floor of the mens room, he relives in his mind a sordid sexual affair from years ago. Biff had inadvertently stumbled onto the affair shortly after his graduation from high school - just before he was to begin college, and football ...

When the young men arrive home that evening, they are greeted by their mother. She says that Willy has been puttering in the yard since he got home, talking to himself - and to Ben, his brother, who has been dead now for nine months. Biff informs his mom that he will be leaving the next day and probably wont be coming back, then walks outside to say goodbye to his father. By and by their father-and-son talk turns into an argument. Biff has already tried once to tell Willy what he had learned that day; now he is determined to make him hear.

WILLY Then hang yourself! For spite, hang yourself!

BIFF No! Nobodys hanging himself, Willy! I ran down eleven flights with a pen in my hand today. And suddenly I stopped .... I stopped in the middle of that building and I saw - the sky. I saw the things that I love in this world. The work and the food and time to sit and smoke. And I looked at the pen and said to myself, what the hell am I grabbing this for? Why am I trying to become what I dont want to be? What am I doing in an office, making a contemptuous, begging fool of myself, when all I want is out there, waiting for me the minute I say I know who I am! Why cant I say that, Willy?

WILLY. The door of your life is wide open! BIFF Pop! Im a dime a dozen, and so are you!

WILLY I am not a dime a dozen! I am Willy Loman, and you are Biff Loman! BIFF I am not a leader of men, Willy, and neither are you. You were never anything but a hard-working drummer who landed in the ash can like all the rest of them! Im one dollar an hour, Willy! I tried seven states and couldnt raise it. A buck an hour! Do you gather my meaning? Im not bringing home any prizes any more, and youre going to stop waiting for me to bring them home!

Still, Willy cant - wont - grasp what Biff is saying. The argument escalates. But just as it looks as though Biff is ready to haul off and strike Willy, he falls into his arms, weeping. Deeply moved, as Biff stumbles up the stairs to his bedroom, Willy prophesies, That boy - that boy is going to be magnificent!

That night Willy remains alone in the kitchen. Everyone else has gone upstairs. He drifts in and out of the past, talking to himself and to his brother Ben, once a successful land developer, who once had gone into the jungle and come out rich. Linda is worried, and urges her exhausted husband to come to bed. But Willy puts her off. Hes still speaking with Ben, his illusory ideal of complete, success. Willy has a proposition to make. Can you imagine that magnificence [Biff] with twenty-thousand dollars in his pocket? he mutters across the table. Twenty-thousand dollars is the amount of the benefit in Willys life insurance policy.

Suddenly, Linda hears the car motor turn over. Willy guns the engine, the car squeals off down the street - then comes the sound of grinding steel and shattering glass.

Commentary

Death of a Salesman is perhaps the greatest and most significant American play of the 0th century. In many ways, it penetrates to the heart of the American experience, to the dark side of the capitalistic ideal. It is also a sensitive, heart-rending drama.

Millers play is hard to classify. Some may label it a tragedy, and Willy Loman a tragic hero. But is he? Typically, heroes make the journey from darkness into light, from ignorance to understanding; but Willy never accepts the truth of what is going on in his or his familys life. He begins to catch a glimpse of the joy life can offer, and moves to take advantage of the time he has left, but his firing sends him into a tailspin. His delusions persist till the end, when he manages to misconstrue both his own motives and his sons aspirations, even in the act of suicide.

Early in the play, Willy reminisces on a fellow salesman who was highly successful and well-liked. When this man died, people from all over came to pay their respects. However, as the epitome of a shattered dream, Willy Loman dies a forgotten failure - and not one of his associates attends his funeral.

Albert Chinualumogu Achebe was born on November 16, 10, in Ogidi, a large village in Nigeria. Although he was the child of a Protestant missionary and received his early education in English, his upbringing was multicultural, as the inhabitants of Ogidi still lived according to many aspects of traditional Igbo (formerly written as Ibo) culture. Achebe attended the Government College in Umuahia from 144 to 147. He graduated from University College, Ibadan, in 15. While he was in college, Achebe studied history and theology. He also developed his interest in indigenous Nigerian cultures, and he rejected his Christian name, Albert, for his indigenous one, Chinua.

In the 150s, Achebe was one of the founders of a Nigerian literary movement that drew upon the traditional oral culture of its indigenous peoples. In 15, he published Things Fall Apart as a response to novels, such as Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness, that treat Africa as a primordial and cultureless foil for Europe. Tired of reading white mens accounts of how primitive, socially backward, and, most important, language-less native Africans were, Achebe sought to convey a fuller understanding of one African culture and, in so doing, give voice to an underrepresented and exploited colonial subject.

Things Fall Apart is set in the 180s and portrays the clash between Nigerias white colonial government and the traditional culture of the indigenous Igbo people. Achebes novel shatters the stereotypical European portraits of native Africans. He is careful to portray the complex, advanced social institutions and artistic traditions of Igbo culture prior to its contact with Europeans. Yet he is just as careful not to stereotype the Europeans; he offers varying depictions of the white man, such as the mostly benevolent Mr. Brown, the zealous Reverend Smith, and the ruthlessly calculating District Commissioner.

Achebes education in English and exposure to European customs have allowed him to capture both the European and the African perspectives on colonial expansion, religion, race, and culture. His decision to write Things Fall Apart in English is an important one. Achebe wanted this novel to respond to earlier colonial accounts of Africa; his choice of language was thus political. Unlike some later African authors who chose to revitalize native languages as a form of resistance to colonial culture, Achebe wanted to achieve cultural revitalization within and through English. Nevertheless, he manages to capture the rhythm of the Igbo language and he integrates Igbo vocabulary into the narrative.

Achebe has become renowned throughout the world as a father of modern African literature, essayist, and professor of English literature at Bard College in New York. But Achebes achievements are most concretely reflected by his prominence in Nigerias academic culture and in its literary and political institutions. He worked for the Nigerian Broadcasting Company for over a decade and later became an English professor at the University of Nigeria. He has also been quite influential in the publication of new Nigerian writers. In 167, he co-founded a publishing company with a Nigerian poet named Christopher Okigbo and in 171, he began editing Okike, a respected journal of Nigerian writing. In 184, he founded Uwa ndi Igbo, a bilingual magazine containing a great deal of information about Igbo culture. He has been active in Nigerian politics since the 160s, and many of his novels address the post-colonial social and political problems that Nigeria still faces.

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Dream Interpretation

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Dream interpretation is used by many to help better understand the thoughts and feelings of the unconscious as well as the conscious and the aspects of repression. However, it is a field of psychology not highly regarded in western societies as an extremely important aspect of psychoanalysis or the entire field itself. Dream interpretation first entered into psychology with Freud's masterpiece The Interpretation of Dreams in 18. The book received prompt, respectful, and widespread attention and signified the immergence of a new aspect of psychology. Another character who contributed enormously to this field was Carl G. Jung, he and Freud are the two who are widely characterized as the major contributors to the study of dreams

When Freud was writing his controversial book he believed dreams were infrequent, long-prepared clusters of images that went off like fireworks during sleep, fueled by repressed wishes from early childhood. Today, the conventional view is that dreams are mental experiences taking place during REM sleep which include vivid visual imagery, are often vary bizarre and seem vary real to the dreamer. This view is coming into question due to decades of research on the contents of dreams. These studies have shown dreams to be less bizarre than previously thought and that dreams are not the exclusive property of REM sleep. Studies of dreams in non-REM sleep have shown them to be less vivid and story like than REM dreams. And recent work in awareness suggests that dreamers are more aware that they are dreaming than previously believed. Therefore, since Freud's introduction of dream interpretation into psychology it has undergone revisions through evolution of the subject and the concept of dreaming continues to go through changes.

Sigmund Freud was the "father" of psychoanalysis. He attempted to describe the mind as a system of nerve cells that oversaw all mental activity by storing and discharging energy. He thought the source of this energy was sexualtoday it would be identified as sex hormoneswhich cause sexual tension and fuel the nervous system. Thus, he believed unconscious sexual wishes were the primary motivating force for dreams. While writing his book, The Interpretation of Dreams Freud realized he was writing the first psychoanalytical work in history.

According to Freud, dreams and delusions come from what has been repressed. Dreams disguise infantile wishes as to evade our censorious conscience and be fulfilled pointlessly in fantasy. In attempting to understand dreams we encounter a façade, the "manifest content" which is the verbal translation of the dream by the dreamer that is itself a disguise. The dreamer is either unable or unwilling to disclose the true facts of the dream and the process of concealment uses any materials at hand to build the façade. The four major sources of material include bodily sensations during sleep, "day residue", childhood memories and universal human experiences.

Custom Essays on Dream Interpretation

Dream interpretation is the study of repressed feelings and wishes mostly from childhood. When a child is very young they do not have the capability to express themselves very well in words. They carry feelings inside and sometimes do not know what to do with them. So, there are two paths the child can take. Either the child finds and outlet to relieve and deal with what they are feeling inside, or they repress it. If the child is able to find an outlet and start a flow of thoughts and feelings, than that is obviously a lot healthier for the child. It allows them to open themselves and bring what is in the darkness out to light, so to speak. However, if the child is unable to create an outlet for whatever reason, then this creates a build up over time and the child starts to repress their feelings, thoughts, wishes or emotions.

Repression throughout early childhood causes a personal trend in the child's behavior. It allows them to experience repression as a way of dealing with things as opposed to expression, when in fact repression does not deal with anything, it only puts it aside. This is not good for any child and is most likely inadvertently taught by the parents. It is a backwards way of thinking that will hold a child back from growing up. Once the child learns unknowingly how to repress or hold back their "wishes" it can become a habit and seem like the right thing to do. As the child grows older and does not learn to deal with things, it can become a problem. However, most people find some way of expressing themselves and only experience mild repression if any at all. Anyway, these repressed "wishes" are not gone totally from consciousness, only lost somewhere within the subconscious. This is where dreams come into play.

According to Freud, dreams are a person's subconscious way of trying to deal with those unexpressed, unfulfilled, unachieved ideas, wishes or thoughts. So when a person goes to sleep and the subconscious is active these issues will try to express themselves as feelings, images or scenes. This is a way to bring these things to the surface of consciousness. However, it is still up to the person to figure out what the dream meant or was about in order to deal with it and move on. This is how dream interpretation can be helpful.

Most of the time when dealing with deep repression, when a dream is experienced and remembered the person cannot relate it to any particular event in their past or present. And there is no telling of what time period from which the dream came or if the dream was even self-centered. This is an example of Freud's theory of "Manifest Content". The idea the dream actually related to is so distorted that the dreamer cannot see it for what it is and so they begin piecing together what they can and filling in the rest. Thus, "Manifest Content" a distortion of reality born through repression and manifested through dreams. So, in order to deal with repressed "wishes" through the aid of dreams we have to rely on a person's ability to find what is true in themselves possibly with the help of others.

Not all dreams carry as much weight as in this scenario. Dreams which take place in non-REM sleep are less dramatic, lighter and overall much less vivid. These dreams involve lighter aspects of thought such as a previous day or week's events, this is called "day residue". This can be a way of seeing events or situations from a different point of view. Or maybe it is simply light thoughts passing through consciousness during the night. Either way, non-REM dreams have been proven to be less dramatic than REM dreams and do not delve as deep into consciousness.

Freud believed unconscious sexual wishes were the primary motivating force for dreams. He wrote that the source of mental energy is sexual. A build up of sex hormones causes tension in the nervous system. Too much of a build up would result in anxiety symptoms and too little nervous exhaustion. So, this tension searches for a way out, through dreams.

In modern psychology there are three main sources of western philosophy on how dreams are explained. First, there is the Bible, which contains stories about dreams as the word of God and false gods and so on. Second, we have the philosophy of Aristotle, who was the great Greek philosopher of 84- B.C. And third, the longest and most detailed of the three is The Oneirocriticon (Interpretation of Dreams) of Artemidorus of Daldis who lived in the second century A.D.

The Bible is filled with reports of dreams, interpretations and thoughts on the nature and functions of dreams. The Bible presents dreams as the primary vehicle in which God communicates with men and women. One of the messages depicted is God's ominous presence and importance in the life of the dreamer. Also, the dreams in the Bible emanate messages of reassurance, guidance and counsel to the dreamers. Throughout this book there are tales of prophesy and false prophesy through dreams, while other dreams are dismissed as vain illusions.

The philosopher Aristotle analyzed dreams in two short treatises, On Dreams and On Prophesying by Dreams. In On Dreams Aristotle states that during our dreaming experiences the normal functioning of our faculties of sense perception and intellect cease and our thoughts are governed mainly by emotion. During our daily lives we experience many external objects of stimulus, and when we sleep the external objects perceived leave our range of senses. However, there are still impressions from these objects within us and these impressions themselves become objects of perception. Aristotle warns of being mislead by dreams because of the role emotion plays in them.

In On Prophesying by Dreams Aristotle evaluates claims of divine revelations foretelling the future through dreams. He is generally skeptical of these claims because he says if God were the source of them, why would he send them to the average individual, assuming he is referring to all dreams and not just the ones that could be considered prophetic. In any case, he goes on to say allegedly prophetic dreams can be regarded in three ways. They may be causes, tokens or coincidences. Just as daily events can influence our dreams, it must be said that dreams can have influences on our waking lives too. He says that dreams may also be tokens of events to come in the future. Such as the beginning symptoms of illness, unrecognizable during our daily scheme which are detected in the quiet of unconsciousness. Though giving recognition to dreams as causes of events and prophetic visions, Aristotle believes most dreams, thought to be prophetic are actually mere coincidences. The occurrence of dreaming about an event and then actually experiencing or seeing it happen is not all the uncommon depending on the complexity of the event, especially today with the advancement of communication all over the world. Aristotle says that if we are able to learn how to recognize and account for the distortion in dreams due to emotion then we might actually be able to learn something of value from our own dreams.

The third book of the foundation of western thought on dream interpretation is the Oneirocriticon of Artemidorus. This is the most detailed and sophisticated text on dream interpretation to survive from ancient times. Artemidorus was a well-read man who lived in early A.D. and acquired his knowledge from any texts he could find on dream interpretation and through conversation with the much-despised diviners of his time. Artemidorus makes the distinction between enhypnion and oneiros. Enhypnion indicates a present state of affairs, as in hungry people dreaming about food or a crippled person dreaming of walking, while the latter goes beyond the present to focus on the prediction of future events. He also draws a distinction between theorematic and allegorical dreams. Theorematic dreams are very direct and precise with the images presented and its meaning. For example, a dream about witnessing a bank robbery and the very next day the actual event takes place in perfect detail as compared to the dream. On the other hand, allegorical dreams involve indirect imagery of events to predict the future. Such as, a dream of returning home from Jamaica could indicate the person actually returning home from a foreign land. In the Oneirocriticon, Artemidorus discusses many types of dreams and their interpretations. Some modern psychologists have accused him of outlining an exact format of dream images assigned to a particular meaning without consideration of the individual. However, he has written that an accurate dream interpretation must rely on a detailed knowledge of the dreamer's life, for it is possible indeed that two people have the exact same dream with two completely different meanings.

The interpretation of dreams is a considerably vast aspect of psychology. There are many individuals who have studied, written about and devoted their lives to the subject. Some of them I have mentioned here and others I did not have the time or space to include. One of importance is C.G. Jung, who was a student and close friend of Sigmund Freud before they eventually parted ways in a bitter falling out in 114. After this Jung receeded from the scientific world for four years into a world of his own dreams and consciousness. With his emergence out of his own reclusion he proceeded to write Two Essays on Analytical Psychology and his final work Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Sigmund Freud was the "father of psychoanalysis" who along with Jung most people would agree were the most influential people in the interpretation of dreams and the growth and development of the subject. Today, some of the traditional ideas are undergoing changes due to recent work in consciousness awareness and the study of dreams in non-REM sleep, thus like everything else this subject of dream interpretation is and continually will be going through changes through evolution.

Please note that this sample paper on Dream Interpretation is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Dream Interpretation, we are here to assist you. Your essay on Dream Interpretation will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Was the Renaissance over glorified?

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The elimination of at least half of all Europeans was a tragic event, but the Black Death brought about one of the greatest eras of all time the Renaissance. It was an improvement from the state of the Middle Ages which was often called the "Dark Ages" and it was by no means an over glorified period of time. The Renaissance, meaning 'rebirth' originated in Northern Italy and that's where the majority of the changes took place. There was a decline of the feudal system during this time and individualism began to thrive. With the mind developing, education became much more vital in society than it previously had been. The educated population that began to grow found new means of trade and expanded their territory. Careers such as banking and merchandizing became vital to improve the state of the economy. With the newfound wealth that was created by these occupations, many people invested into culture in a significant way. Numerous changes were made to Europe during the Renaissance. Not all the individuals benefited from these changes but over all the state of society became better off with their new mode of thought, especially compared to the previous state it was in during the Middle Ages. The beneficial changes that took place were exceptional and advantageous to help set up modern western civilisation.

After the devastation of the Black Death, Italy's ideal location along the Mediterranean Sea opened up opportunities for trade. As a result, Italy began to see an economic rise take place, which gradually spread all over Europe. Members of the middle class became capitalist entrepreneurs. Others became merchants who indirectly helped to boost the economy by learning the art of trade. Also banking became a popular profession for the educated. These people became to be known as the 'bourgeois'. It was only the wealth that inspired the business people to come forth and succeed as they did, but in doing so they indirectly helped the destruction of the feudal system because the individual in general played much more of a role in society. The riches they had acquired through their work led them to retain a more substantial portion of the wealth then the middle class previously had. The bourgeois also gained political strength due to their work as they were keeping the economy alive, so they should have had a say on how the country was operated. Throughout the Renaissance more and more members of the bourgeois began to emerge into society. As they did, the nobility resented them more as they became less important. It was a time when "a servant may easily become a king" (Aeneas Sylvius) if they had the ability to. Such opportunities mainly arose from the business world. The people who took the role in the careers of merchants had to be educated and that can be seen with only 1 percent of them being illiterate (Manchester, 6) because it became to be a very complex occupation. Many transactions took place in their daily routine. There was money owed to them, trade took place on a regular basis, money was owed to banks and yet they still had to take care of and keep their inventory intact. The role of the banker was mainly as a creditor to kings and merchants, as well as financing wars and exploration (Thompson, ed., 1). They also speculated on currency rates, which is another factor why trade expanded beyond their territory. A Franciscan monk named Fra Luca Pacioli came up with the idea of double entry bookkeeping, which helped the merchants to keep a much more efficient record of their finances (deSantis, web page). This set up the basics for a simple accounting system. It wasn't that the idea of accounting that was new, but before hand all transactions used to be kept track of in dairies and other little notebooks. Roman numerals were used, which made it much more complex. The new system allowed money to be allocated easily to people i.e. whoever owed or needed to collect money. However during the Renaissance, with the vast amount of trade that took place the continuous flow of money was non-stop, so a control over money had to take form. The banks helped to do this. This is how the Medici's created their abundance of wealth. Families came together throughout Italy lived close to each other each other so they were able to support one another for protection, increased security and so they could assist each other with business. Though the feudal system embarked on a severe dent in its structure, a lot of the wealth and power moved from the nobility to these economically strong families. The Medici's were by far the strongest of the families, which came together in Italy. Their influence they had in and outside of the business world was phenomenal. It was Giovanni di Bicci de Medici who was the first of the Medici's who entered the banking industry in a significant way, and his son Cosimo who took over the family business in 14 became the most powerful Medici (Mee, ). He had the wealth and more than enough power to be a king. The family contributed to the banking industry in a distinguishable way. The simple economy which in the Middle Ages was mainly agriculturally based and relied heavily upon the labour of the artisans and peasants had transformed into a much more developed system in the Renaissance which opened up new careers and opportunities for the average middle class. As more and more wealth came to Italy, merchants found more efficient ways to operate their activities and constructive ways to spend their money.

Once the accumulating profits started to come in to Italy through business and trade, Italy invested largely in to culture. Many people spent their wealth on the arts such as painting and sculpting. This is a time when the works of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo became very popular and expensive. The artists were educated through means of apprenticeships. They were no longer just mere common folk as they were in the Middle Ages but became to be appreciated for their talents. Their knowledge wasn't just limited to the painting, but many of these artists were, what became known as 'Renaissance Men', who sought to take interest in other subjects. They developed their artistic technique and it improved immensely to the paintings of the Middle Ages. The art of the Renaissance had a lot more dimension and depth than then. It wasn't just about pretty pictures but pictures were used to tell stories, spread ideas and solve solutions. Michelangelo was astounding when it came to art. He specialized and had a keen interest in sculpting. His David saw the beauty of the human form and how it was naturally. He thought, A man paints with his brains and not with his hands. He used his intellect to improve his technique. His knowledge in anatomy specifically the network of muscles helped him to perfect his paintings (Rizzatti, 1). In a matter of decades some pieces of artwork rose to the astonishing price of ,000 florins per painting and in which earlier years it would have gone for as little as 5 florins (Mee, 87). The art, which was mainly based upon religious themes, also had a significant influence on the literature that was around at the time. Once these patrons of the arts began to emerge, Italy was turned in to one of the most beautiful countries of its time and it still is today. The rest of Europe saw this beauty that flourished among Italy very positively and the same change took place in other countries.

With so many changes and developments taking place, the importance of education was seen. People realised how vital it was to educate themselves, and find out more about the past so they were able to make themselves a better future. A group of people known as humanists attempted to revive the antiquity and classical thought of ancient Rome, as this was a time where Italy's status on a global scale was very high. As a result, they saw the need to seek knowledge to develop their mind, which would allow them to evaluate themselves and the society around them. They were very linguistic, interested in the ancient languages such as Greek and Latin. As well as the Humanists, the Renaissance Men were key figures in the education reform. They were also deeply involved with seeking knowledge and were always striving to learn something new. In a sense, these men were extreme humanists. Leonardo da Vinci, as well as being one of the elite artists of his time, his passion for creativity made him one of the most developed intellectuals that the modern world has ever seen. He was educated in such subjects as engineering, anatomy and mechanics. He was such as a man as to say When I get a little money, I buy books; and if any is left, I buy food and clothes (Leonardo da Vinci), which meant he put knowledge before his life. These types of men might have been uncommon, but they did exist and were still eager to learn. They didn't really look at the Church or play a role in the Reformation unlike the humanists did. However, they did agree on one thing, which was the importance of education. So when Johann Genfleisch zum Gutenberg invented the moveable metal type printing press during the 1440's these people were able to gain knowledge much more easily than before. Previously books had been handwritten and it could take as long as a year to just to produce a single book. But with this invention two pressmen could manage to produce 50 sheets of literature within an hour (Clement, web site). When this came about education and literacy became more encouraged and important to the rest of Europe. Also now the humanists were able to translate, reproduce and pass on the ideas of other scholars through literature. It made the revival of classical thought easier and it made many more people become interested in reviving antiquity. The books were no longer just about religion and weren't just controlled by the Church and literature solely available to the monks. Now ordinary people could contribute to the literature that they read. Topics such as romance were for the women, business for the merchants and bankers, science and mathematics for the scholar. Also it enabled the Humanists to translate other people's works and spread their ideas across to other Humanists. With so many books available, more libraries were constructed for these purposes. Though it was rare for a library to hold more than 00 books, they still existed (Manchester, 5). The printing press allowed the sale of books to be relatively inexpensive so that the average workers were able to afford them. Previously books cost much more due to the high production cost and were fairly uncommon being only available to people with wealth to lavish on such luxuries. But by 1501 there was more than a 1,000 printing shops in Europe and over 100 of these belonged to Italy so virtually everybody had the access to books (Mee, 8).

Custom Essays on Was the Renaissance over glorified?

The Renaissance set the standard for modern western civilization. It was a vast improvement from the Middle Ages. Education was left to the people of the Church then but the Renaissance brought it out to whoever wished to acquire it. This more literate population led to a stronger economy. These people helped to improve art, business, science and other subjects. Art along with literature became the biggest movements within Europe. The paintings still flourish among our society today and are seen as the pinnacle of art. Though every good thing was rare and only came in moderation, the Renaissance was only a start of thing of what was to come. Many other changes took place in the16th Century which were much more advanced and they used many of the ideas of the Renaissance Men and scholars. As you can see, the Renaissance was to great extent a major turning point in history from the Middle Ages in just about every element of society. The Renaissance has truly become the original roots of Western culture. Calder, Ritchie. Leonardo & the Age of the Eye. London William Heinemann Ltd., 170.

Clement, Richard W. Medieval and Renaissance Book Production - Printed Books. http//orb.rhodes.edu/encyclop/culture/books/medbook.html

Cronin, Vincent. The Flowering of the Renaissance. London Collins Clear, 16.

Dannenfeldt, Karl H., ed. The Renaissance Medieval or Modern? Lexington D.C. Heath

and Company, 15.

Manchester, William. A World Lit Only by Fire. The Medieval Mind and the Renaissance Portrait of an Age. Toronto Little, Brown and Company, 1.

Mee, Charles L. Daily Life in the Renaissance. New York American Heritage Publishing Co., 175.

Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia. Renaissance Art and Architecture. 00. http//encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/refarticle.aspx?refid=7615545

Rizzatti, Maria L. The Life, Times and Art of Michelangelo. Verona Crescent Books, 166.

Santis, James de. Origin of accounting and bookkeeping. http//users.rowan.edu/~fran41/account/account.htm

Thompson, Stephen P., ed. The Renaissance. San Diego Greenhaven Press, Inc., 000.

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Business Writing

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Hellenic Telecommunications Organization SA (ASE HTO, NYSEOTE), the Greek full-service telecommunications provider, today announced that an Extraordinary General Meeting held today has approved a one-year extension of its share buyback program, which had been authorized by shareholders on October 17, 00, and had expired on October 16, 00. Under the expired program, OTE has purchased 4,40 shares at an average price of EUR.5 per share. Under all previous share buy back programs up to the present, OTE has purchased a total of 1,0,810 shares or .75% of all shares outstanding, at an average price of EUR1. per share. (Pursuant to Law 10/10, OTE has the right to buy up to 10% of its authorized capital, or 50,405,41 shares.) Under the new program, which becomes effective December , 00 and expires on December 1, 004, OTE is authorized to purchase up to 0,000,000 shares, or approximately 6.1% of all shares outstanding, for a price per share ranging between EUR5 and EUR15. OTE is a provider of public, fixed switch domestic and international telephony services in Greece. With local, long distance and international communications services in addition to mobile telephony, Internet services, and high-speed data communications, OTE provides consumers and businesses the ability to communicate globally through its extensive network infrastructure. In addition, OTE has a number of International investments in the South East European region and addresses a potential customer base of 60 million people.

Listed on the Athens Stock Exchange, the company trades under the ticker HTO as well as on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker OTE. In the U.S., OTEs American Depository Receipts (ADRs) represents 1/ ordinary share.

Hellenic Telecommunications Organization SA (ASE HTO, NYSEOTE), the Greek full-service telecommunications provider, today announced that an Extraordinary General Meeting held today has approved a one-year extension of its share buyback program, which had been authorized by shareholders on October 17, 00, and had expired on October 16, 00. Under the expired program, OTE has purchased 4,40 shares at an average price of EUR.5 per share. Under all previous share buy back programs up to the present, OTE has purchased a total of 1,0,810 shares or .75% of all shares outstanding, at an average price of EUR1. per share. (Pursuant to Law 10/10, OTE has the right to buy up to 10% of its authorized capital, or 50,405,41 shares.) Under the new program, which becomes effective December , 00 and expires on December 1, 004, OTE is authorized to purchase up to 0,000,000 shares, or approximately 6.1% of all shares outstanding, for a price per share ranging between EUR5 and EUR15. OTE is a provider of public, fixed switch domestic and international telephony services in Greece. With local, long distance and international communications services in addition to mobile telephony, Internet services, and high-speed data communications, OTE provides consumers and businesses the ability to communicate globally through its extensive network infrastructure. In addition, OTE has a number of International investments in the South East European region and addresses a potential customer base of 60 million people.

Listed on the Athens Stock Exchange, the company trades under the ticker HTO as well as on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker OTE. In the U.S., OTEs American Depository Receipts (ADRs) represents 1/ ordinary share.

Please note that this sample paper on Business Writing is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Business Writing, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Business Writing will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Adolescents and the Grieving Process Due to Death

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Death is a difficult situation for anyone to deal with, but it seems to be harder for adolescents to overcome. Loss is something teens feel when they are separated from something or someone they care about, however life does continue. With death, teens experience a grieving process. Everyone grieves differently, just as every teen grieves differently depending on who died, how they died, and other situations surrounding the death.

Grief is not a disorder, a disease, or a sign of weakness. It is an emotional, physical, and spiritual necessity that comes along with loving someone. (Rofes.) There is no cure for grief, but to grieve. Buried grief can cause a war within an individual and at times it can feel like a bomb ticking underground. Most teenagers when dealing with death have a tendency to feel that the pain is so powerful that no one can understand. The pain that hits the adolescent dealing with a loss is not in one location of the body but throughout the entire body. According to the poet from the nineteenth century, Henrich, he stated, "Grief is like a toothache of the heart." (Grollman 6)

No one can measure the length of grief. There is no correct way for a teen to grieve. The suffering as a result of a death varies from person to person. Unfortunately there is no easy way out when dealing with death, but a person must try to remember that they will eventually feel better. When dealing with a loss it is important for teens to remember not to compare their suffering with that of others because each individual's pain is different.

The grieving process depends on many factors surrounding the death. Grief depends on the relationship one had with the person who died. Another is how they may have handled stress in the past and their coping strategies with other types of losses. Also the individual dealing with their loss depends on the support they have from family and friends. Finally the grieving process depends on circumstances around the death such as the way the person died, their religious background, age, and sex. (Schleifer)

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Dazed or shock is another feeling that is felt after loss. Ones' body is no longer connected with their mind. This is part of the grieving process. Numbness is all that is felt. When teens are dazed their emotional system shuts down before the reality of the death sets in. Emily Dickinson called this shock "the hour of lead." Teens may start to feel like a robot. They may function mechanically but not emotionally. This is how the human body protects itself from having to deal with something very tragic. The body requires a cushion of time before the reality of loss can be dealt with.

When life seems unbearable, disbelief intervenes. Teens try to believe that the death hasn't happened. This is the time where they need to let their emotions catch up with what the mind is telling them. Disbelief can last a few hours, a few weeks, a few months, or even as long as years, depending on the certain individual. Eventually the teen must face the truth that his/her loved one is dead in order to overcome the situation.

Another part of the grieving process is anger. Many teens become angry at others. They may have a sense of irritation towards their friends for saying the wrong things or the medical community for not being there to help their loved one. Teens may become outraged at God for letting this happen or their family for not giving the right support. Adolescents may have a feeling of hate to anyone who may have caused the death such as a drunk driver or murderer. Teens may begin to feel anger towards their loved one who died because he/she left them and feel abandoned. Also teens may be mad at themselves for feeling the way that they do.

Anger is like a fire. Young adults need to burn it out before it burns them out. It will start to burn them out physically with tiredness, headaches, digestive problems, or symptoms their loved one may have experienced. They may have a loss of friends due to withdrawal or anger that may have lashed out towards them. Also teens may lash out at themselves and cause physical suffering to themselves. To deny anger is to deny healing. Dealing with rage equals forgiveness towards others and within one's own self.

Adolescents dealing with death may feel a sense of envy, panic, relief, or loneliness. They may feel jealously at other happy people. Teens may panic and lose concentration and become tense. They soon become helpless, hopeless, and disorganized and a result of panic. Usually when a loved one dies from a long term illness a teen may have a sense of relief. (Rofes) This emotion is a result of the end of responsibility of taking care the sick. Young adults may start to feel lonely also. No one understands their feelings. Other people they know may be in their own grieving process. People must realize the difference between being alone and being lonely. Alone becomes loneliness when separation caused sad and rejected emotions.

There is probably no crisis more stressful than the death of a loved one, which can take a dramatic toll on a person's body. Physical reactions to the body include illness, change in sleeping pattern, nightmares, eating more or less, emptiness, nausea, headaches, dizziness, light-headedness, giddiness, difficulty breathing, tight throat, or becoming afraid of a serious illness. These reactions usually occur periodically. They may appear alone or combined with others. One's pain is not imagined. The period following a death triggers the human immune system "Seventy-five percent of routine doctor visits have stress related disorders." (Grollman 6) These symptoms can also be another component to the grieving process.

Teenagers may think that they are losing their mind. They are starting to go nuts. Results of this may be losing their way, hearing stuff, talking aloud to the deceased, believing they can see their dead loved one, calling out to their loved one, dreaming about them, and even forgetting their own name. Teens wish and daydream to try and bring the loved one back to life. They want to bring the past to present. Absence becomes the greatest presence. These strange actions and thoughts are only temporary; they fade and disappear.

When a teen starts to feel torn apart from everyone and everything they may start to fall into depression. Depression begins when a teen feels worthless, powerless, helpless, and unprotected. A teen's anger turns inward towards themselves. Depression is part of saying good-bye to someone. It's not a weakness. Some teenagers get stuck in a state of depression. If teens become trapped in depression they should seek advice and comfort from others to avoid hurting themselves physically.

Regrets and guilt are another part of the grieving process. Teenagers start to think of all the things that they should or could have been done. They can start to feel survivor's guilt, or feeling of guilt for being alive. They may feel guilt for having fun and laughing at such a tragic time of their life. Teens should think of what was done and not what could have been done. They must realize they can't change the past, but they should avoid the same mistakes in the future. (Rofes)

The grieving process and effects of it depend on many things surrounding the death. One is the relationship with the person who died. How well a teen knew them and how much they depended on him/her will deeply effect their grieving process.

A grandparent is usually a teen's first experience with death besides a pet. A teen and a grandparent have a special relationship. They have one common enemy-the parent. A grandparent has few demands and more gives such as advice and gifts. This creates a special bond with the grandparent. Also the closer a teen was to the grandparent the harder it will be for them to cope with.

With the death of a parent a teen's life changes. An issue most teens become concerned about is what will happen to them if their other parent passes away. Their sense of security has diminished. A teen must learn to become more independent in most cases. They must now participate in crucial decisions and take up much more responsibilities.

When a sibling dies, most people will go to console the teen's parents. This leaves the teen alone without other's comfort. Their loss depends on the sibling's age. If it was an older sibling, the teen may have lost a role model or someone they looked up to. It they were close in age, a friend and companion may have died. If the sibling was younger, the teen could have lost someone they took care of and someone that looked up to them. The parents may become overprotected and enforce stricter rules and less freedom. This only creates extra stress on the grieving teen. (Schaefer)

Sometimes worse than losing a relative is losing a close friend. People start to worry about the dead one's family and parents. The teen is left alone to grieve and emotions are bottled up. They may be scared to become close with others or even try to make new friends. They have to learn to hurt more right after the death and hurt less later.

The circumstances of death affect the way teen's respond to their loss. Whether the death was sudden, suicide, AIDS, murder, or death after a long illness will effect the grieving process. An important factor affecting a teen's feelings will be the way the special person died.

An accident is something that is unfortunate and unforeseen resulting from carelessness or an unavoidable cause. And accidental death is something unfortunate and unforeseen as a result of carelessness or an unavoidable cause. This is unfortunate. One moment someone is fine and then the next they aren't. There is no forewarning and everyone is totally unprepared. It is unforeseen. Perhaps the death could have been avoided if someone wasn't so careless at the time. There may have been unavoidable cause such as natural disasters. The impact of a sudden death is overwhelming. The psychological term is "unexpected loss syndrome." Survivors feel an overpowering shock because life is taken away so quickly and they are powerless.

A self-inflicted death can be more dramatic. Teens may feel as if they didn't love enough. They can feel ashamed, embarrassed, or a greater sense of failure within themselves. They may start to wonder if they could have prevented it. There are questions, doubts, and guilt all over inside one's head. Teenagers may feel abandoned or rejected, but they must learn that they cannot control the lives of others.

A death through violence like a murder or drunk driver, can cause a large trauma and shock within a teen. If another individual caused the death the court system could take years to end. This brings on a much longer grieving process. A teen may feel robbed of victimized if the verdict is soft. Hatred, bitterness, and revenge are emotions that a teen may feel towards the one who cause their loved one's death.

A death after an illness is unprepared even though it may not seem like it. Death is something no one is prepared for even if some one knows it will happen. A teenager may feel a sense of joy due to the fact that their loved one is no longer suffering. The loved one's suffering may be over, but not the teen's suffering. (Grollman)

The length of grief is unsure. Teens must grieve for the person who died and the person they were before the death. There is no time limit on grief. Time does not completely heal a broken heart; it only teaches someone to live with it. Time does not heal pain, a teenager's willingness to touch pain, work with it, accept it, understand their change of moods and behavior, and start to reorganize themselves does. Healing happens when one allows it to happen. An old Chinese Proverb is "Journey of a thousand miles starts with a single step." (Grollman 1) A teen's must first step is to learn to accept the pain of dealing with death. They can not heal what they don't feel. They must allow themselves to mourn. They may not fully believe the death but must start to face the facts. Reality may hurt for a while, but denial hurts even longer. Teens have to let out their emotions in order to get over the death. Ways to help deal with death are crying, talking, laughing, writing, reaching out to others, joining support groups, taking care of themselves, helping others, and if needed they could get professional help. Getting over it doesn't necessarily mean a teen is the same person they were before the tragedy. Getting over it doesn't mean they forgot the person who died. An old spiritual saying is "It's so high you can't get over it. It's so low you can't get under it. So wide you can't get around it. You must go through the door." (Grollman 14) No one gets over a loss; they go through it.

Grollman, Earl. Straight Talk about Death for Teenagers. Boston, MA Beacon Press, 1.

Rofes, Eric E. and the Unit at Fayerweather Street School. The Kids' Book about Death andDying. Boston, MA Little Brown and Company, 185.

Schaefer, Dan and Christine Lyons. How Do We Tell the Children? New York, NY Newmarketpress, 186.

Schleifer, Jay. Everything You Need to Know When Someone has been Killed. New York, NY Rosen Publishing Group Inc. 18.

Please note that this sample paper on Adolescents and the Grieving Process Due to Death is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Adolescents and the Grieving Process Due to Death, we are here to assist you. Your essay on Adolescents and the Grieving Process Due to Death will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Managing business

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It is mentioned in the application that the key performance measures are defined as per PPA and are reviewed regularly. However a systematic approach with the help of which senior leaders of the division review organizational performance and organizational capabilities is not evident. Also, a systematic approach to translate review findings into opportunities for improvement and innovation is not evident.

The application mentions that the impact on the society of the product and operations of the division is considered during design stage of project/plant. Also, the emission level of flue gases and discharge of liquid effluents are monitored daily to keep them within control. The division has achieved zero discharge of liquid effluents.

Although the application mentions examples of some of the activities carried out by division for community support, a systematic approach for active participation by senior leaders and employees in community support activities in not evident.

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.0 Strategic Planning

The division has performed SWOT analysis for developing divisional strategy. It includes key participants and planning time horizons. However, the application does not address approach to develop strategic planning process with help of which division derives its strategic objectives.

The application includes various factors affecting the strategic planning process. However a systematic approach to gather and analyse the data relevant to these factors is not evident.

Division has mentioned the process for deploying strategy. Various short term and long term action plans have been shown along with their measures, review schedules and examples of improvements achieved.

The application includes description of deploying action plans and allocating resources accordingly. However a systematic approach for developing action plans and allocations of resources other than finance e.g. HR, materials etc. is not evident.

.0 Customer and Market Focus

It is mentioned that at present there is only one customer due to Power Purchase Agreement with the customer. The division uses various listing and learning methods to determine customer requirements in addition to PPA. For example, meetings between division and customer are held regularly for performance review as per PPA and for complaint resolution. In addition, annual reports and in house journals of customer are referred to gather relevant information. The division keeps track of relevant market trend and government policies through newspapers and business magazines. However, a systematic approach to determine appropriateness of these methods to determine customer requirements with respect to changing business needs and directions is not evident.

It is mentioned that customer base cannot be expanded at present due to Power Purchase Agreement with the existing single customer. It is also mentioned that the efforts are made to establish contacts with major industries in the region. However it is not clear how the division systematically determines or targets new customers / customer groups / market segments.

It is mentioned in the application that relationship with the existing customer is built and maintained by meeting his key requirements. However, a systematic approach for building relationships to acquire new customers is not evident.

Also, It is mentioned that the operational problems and customer complaints are resolved through telephonic communication and weekly meetings between the division and customer. However a systematic approach for effective and prompt complaint management is not evident. Also, a systematic approach to aggregate and analyse the complaints for use in improvement in other divisions of the organization is not evident.

It is mentioned that the division ensures customer satisfaction through maintaining high availability of power supply and through resolving customer complaints with the help of regular meetings and telephonic communication. However a systematic approach to determine customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction and to use its results for improvement and to predict customers future business with the division is not evident.

It is mentioned in the application that the customer feedback is obtained continuously even in absence of complaints. However a systematic follow up approach for obtaining prompt and actionable feedback on products, services and transactions (e.g. follow up on transactions of energy, raw material and finance) from the customer is not evident. It is mentioned that comparison is not possible because of a single customer. However, there is no evidence of a systematic approach to obtain and use information on satisfaction of this customer relative to satisfaction with competitors of the division.

4.0 Information and Analysis

The application describes various sources from where the division gathers data and information on daily basis. However, a systematic approach to integrate the data and information to support organisational decision-making is not evident

The application mentions method of selection and analysis of key comparative data. It is not clear which source (competition/benchmark) is referred for comparison. As such a systematic approach to select and ensure effective use of key comparative data and information is not evident

Although the division reviews key performance factors with respect to annual business plan, a systematic approach to align the results of organizational level analysis with key business results, strategic objectives and action plans is not evident. Also, a systematic approach to use these results for continuous and breakthrough improvement in its performance is not evident.

Various methods of data and information availability have been mentioned. However it does not address how the data on performance measures and performance analysis is made available. Also, a structured approach for making needed data and information available and accessible to divisional employees, customers and suppliers is not evident.

5.0 Human Resource Focus

The application includes description on set-up of various departments and placement of employees. However, a systematic approach to organize and manage work and jobs to promote cooperation, innovation and organizational culture is not evident. Also, a systematic approach to ensure effective communication and knowledge sharing across work units is not evident

The application includes description of key factors that are seen during employee performance review. However, a systematic approach to support high performance, including feedback to the employees, is not evident. It is not clear how the employee performance management system ensures a customer and business focus. The application also includes various forms of awards that are given to high performers. However, a systematic approach to reinforce the objectives of supporting high performance through this reward practice is not evident

The application mentions various factors (including short term and long-term plans) considered while planning employee education, training and development. However, a systematic approach for determining contribution of these efforts towards achievement of action plans and employee development and career progression is not evident.

The division has a structured list of factors that affect workplace health, safety and ergonomics. These factors are reviewed periodically. However, a systematic approach to determine these factors for various workgroups/departments is not evident. Also, a systematic approach to improve workplace health, safety and ergonomics is not evident. The application does not address performance measures and/or targets for each environmental factor.

6.0 Process Management

The application mentions various methods for addressing design quality, cycle time, learning etc. Since the design processes for product and services are not mentioned, it is not clear how division ensures design quality, cycle time, learning from past projects and other parts of the organization, cost control, new design technology, productivity.

The application includes a list of performance requirements and methods to accommodate them into production process. However, a systematic approach to incorporate all key operational performance requirements into design processes for production/delivery processes is not evident.

The division has defined availability factor, performance factor, plant load factor etc. as its key performance parameters and indicators. These parameters and indicators are essential part of scorecard and PPA. These parameters and indicators are monitored continuously, which has enabled the division to control and improve its key production and delivery processes. For example, the plant load factor was maintained at 8% as against requirement of 75%, plant availability improved from 86.45% to 87.41% and performance factor improved from 5.50% to 8.7% compared to 000-01.

Although the application mentions performance parameters and method of monitoring them, a systematic approach to ensure meeting of key performance requirements of key production and delivery processes in day-to-day operation is not evident. Also, the application does not address the approach used by the division to determine, develop and improve key business processes and their requirements to achieve better performance. For example, requirements to expand plant capacity and consumer base etc. are not addressed. Also, the application does not address key performance measures/indicators used for control and improvement of business process of the division to achieve better performance. The application does not address how the division controls and minimizes warranty/rework cost associated with performing inspections, tests and performance audits of its business process.

The application includes description of key operational requirements of support processes. However, a systematic approach to determine key support process requirements, incorporating input from internal customers, is not evident. Also, the key operational requirements such as productivity and cycle time etc. are not addressed in the application. The application does not address key performance measures/indicators and in process measures used for control and improvement of key support processes. It also does not address the approach division adopts to ensure that costs associated with inspections, tests and performance audits of support processes is minimum. The approach of the division to improve its support processes and to keep them current with business needs and directions is also not addressed in the application.

7.0 Business Results

The division has reported levels and trends in key measures of product and service performance. These results indicate that there is a continuous improvement in delivering product and service quality that has lead to higher customer satisfaction and fulfillment of PPA. The application states that the customer satisfaction index has been improved to 0% during 001-00. However, the levels of customer dissatisfaction and customer satisfaction relative to competitors are not reported.

The division has reported income and expenditure summary along with profit for the year 000-001 while Belgaum division has reported net profit and fuel cost for year 001-00. However, the divisions have not reported levels and trends in key measures /indicators of Financial performance and Business growth. For example, results on return on investment, asset utilization, capitalization, depreciation, operating margins, debt to equity ratio, value added per employee etc. are not reported.

The application includes results only on current levels of some of the indicators related to employee satisfaction and development viz. new initiatives taken up, savings due to implementation of suggestion, health, safety etc. However, the results on measures/indicators of employee satisfaction/dissatisfaction such as employee knowledge of job roles, employee perception of empowerment and information sharing, turnover rate, compensation claims, satisfaction survey reports etc. are not reported. Also, the reported results are without trends and appropriate comparative information.

The division has reported operational results of production and delivery processes along with current levels and their trends. viz. improvement in plant availability by 0.6%, improvement in Heat rate by 1.8%, improvement in Performance factor by .77%. Also, the plant load factor was maintained around 7%. The trends indicate that planned and forced outage rate of boilers has considerably come down. Similarly, planned outage rate of TG sets has considerably come down except their forced outage rate. These results indicate that there is continuous improvement in delivering product and service quality that has lead to higher customer satisfaction and fulfillment of PPA.

The division has not reported results for key measures/indicators of accomplishment of organizational and/or divisional strategic objectives that are mentioned in .1b1. For example, results on number of interruptions, improvement in time taken for restoration of power, improvement in communication facilities, environment protection and enrichment, generation cost per unit, O/H transmission line faults, water management effectiveness, inventory management effectiveness etc. are not reported.

The division has not reported results for key measures/indicators of regulatory/ legal compliance. For example, results on financial audit, quantity of ash generated, discharge of flue gases and liquid effluents, environment protection and enrichment etc. are not reported. Also, the results of activities initiated to demonstrate better social responsibility and organizational citizenship are also not reported.

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Without a proper organisational structure it is unlikely that an organisation will reach its goals.

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Without a proper organisational structure it is unlikely that an organisation will achieve its goal. Discuss

Any organisation consists of four functions through which an organisation attains its goal. These functions are planning, organising, leading and controlling and they are all equally important in achieving the organisation's goals. Organisation structure forms part of the organising function of management. Organising refers to arranging and allocating work and resources among the organisational members so that the plans may be carried out successfully. Hence, there is a setting up of the organisational structure whereby work is allocated, lines of authority and responsibility defined and a system of rules and regulations which guide the conduct of the employees laid down. We are therefore going to see to what extent a proper organisational structure has a crucial role to play in attaining the goal of an organisation.

According to Stoner 15, organisational structure is the way through which an organisation's activities are divided, organised and coordinated. It is seen as the backbone of a company which caters for smooth running of activities and work distribution with a view to achieve its goals. The first element of designing the organising structure is to identify every single task that the organisation needs to perform. Then allocate those tasks to individuals or groups. Afterwards, combine the tasks and group employees in a logical and strategic way and finally, set up mechanisms to facilitate coordination both vertically and horizontally. We can therefore find out that the organisational structure does have an important role in helping the company achieve its aim. To better understand the organisational structure, we have divided it into four parts namely job design, departmentalisation, vertical coordination and horizontal coordination. Under each section we will find out to what extent they are important in attaining the company's goal.

Job Design

Buy Without a proper organisational structure it is unlikely that an organisation will reach its goals. term paper

The process of job design is used in order to achieve organizational goal. Job design is defined as the tasks and activities related to a specific job that must be clearly defined. The major approaches to job design are job simplification, job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment.

Job simplification is based on the concept of division of work where tasks given to the employees can be learned and completed relatively quickly. This leads to the enhancement of production efficiencies as employees become expert in their particular job by doing it repetitively.

However, some difficulties arise in the way that work becomes boring since there is a repetition of task, such type of job needs very little skilled workers, it is prone to more absenteeism and finally there is too much of interdependence leads to less turnover

Job rotation on the other hand is defined as shift of workers through a set of job through a planning system. Such approach is mainly used to alleviate boredom. The main advantages associated with it are that it helps the individual to know better the various aspects of organization and leads them to develop more skills, being more capable and flexible.

However, the problems arising from job rotation are that it is time consuming to adapt in a particular job, there are no department loyalty and sense of responsibilities, employees are overloaded with work and there is uncertainty and frustration due to instability of work

Job enlargement is the combination of various operations at a similar level into one job. In this, workers are more motivated to work as they get challenging responsibilities in different departments. As a result it alleviates boredom by increasing job scope.

But there are some problems with job enlargement which are lack of interest in the job as employees change job from time to time, it is very costly and time consuming, workers lack skills and there is the problem of adaptability to different tasks and finally the job might not necessarily be challenging.

Job enrichment is a situation where job is designed is such a way that workers have to perform several activities from a vertical cross section into one job leading to more autonomy and responsibilities. It is meant to empower subordinates with a view to enhance self-satisfaction. The workers are allowed a degree of freedom to work at their own pace, do their planning and to devise their own way of improving and controlling their job.

The difficulties arising are loss of time as employees take all their time to finish their work, too much of responsibilities may discourage workers to work especially if there is no recognition and rewards, there may be difficulties to control the work and they may require changes in layout, technology, training and compensation.

Another approach to job design for increasing job satisfaction and motivation is to other different options concerning work schedules. The common options are flexitime, compressed work-week and job sharing.

Flexitime is a system where workers can decide their working schedules according to their personal needs provided that they fulfil the specified core of working hours. This in turn leads to less absenteeism and a decrease in lateness as workers can avoid traffic jams.

But on the other hand, it would be quite difficult to control the staff and to coordinate people. Furthermore, at time, it may be very difficult to obtain key person when required. It can be done mainly on an individual basis.

Compressed work-week is another type of scheduling where employees are allowed to work longer hours and when their quota of hours are completed they are allowed time off. This leads to greater job satisfaction.

However employees are more prone to accidents due to fatigue.

Job sharing on the other hand is a work practice on a shift basis. It allows workers to arrange working time among them. As a result, it ensures the coordination of the activities of part-time workers in the organization.

DEPARTMENTALISATION

Departmentalisation is the grouping of employees and tasks into areas of work and activities that are similar and logically connected. There are two major ways of departmenatlising namely by function and by product

Functional structure is the grouping of people having similar working skills and expertise and who are engaged in the same activities. There is a well defined hierarchy with a scalar chain of authority and each of the departments is a specialized area comprising specific set of activities. An enterprise may be subdivided into production, marketing, research and development, personnel, finance, legal and professional, information technology and industrial relations.

Departmentalizing jobs into different functions make managers have a limited responsibility over the works that need to be done, hence a restricted range of skills and they became specialized in their jobs by focusing on a particular department

There is better coordination since every manager is responsible for a particular department; there is both authority and delegation. Top managers delegate works to middle managers and the latter delegates to first line managers. They are all then accountable to their respective superiors to see whether the organization is meetings its aims. Within the formal structure of the organization, the one to whom authority is delegated becomes responsible to the superior for doing the job.

However in such types of organizations, decision making process is very slow since there is a need for vertical and horizontal communication at all times to be able to solve problems. Moreover of the specialized skills that managers have, they cannot take over other functions as they possess only a limited school of thoughts. As a result this can cause inter departmental conflicts since through specialization we create differences between departments. These differences will be more visible when discrepancies and failures arise. In other words it will be very difficult to trace the real causes of failures in the organization since department will blame each other and none will be willing to accept that they are the real cause.

On the other hand divisional structure groups similar products, services or markets thus creating departments which look like small separate business within the organization itself. are commonly called divisions which are categorized as product divisions, geographic divisions and customer divisions.

This type of organizational structure is applied in companies which produces different types of product and services, have different geographical areas and also have to deal with different types of customers.

As a result decision making is easier since there is no speciaisation by function. So the person in charge can take the decision himself. As a performance appraisal will be more precise since the departments concentrate on a limited range of products.

Moreover the managerial skills are not limited as they have the opportunity to acquire general management competence since they are engaged in different functions.

Despite its advantages, the divisional structure makes duplication of resources since each division need to be self sufficient to achieve its aims. So this incurs other costs which may go against the aims of the organization that is to increase profits. Moreover managers focus only on their division. They may not consider the objectives of the organization as a whole. Since they have to do all the works in the department, they may not have the necessary technical skills and expertise in the different fields. As a result they may make wrongs decisions which will be detrimental to the company's image.

So to ensure a good fit with the organisation's aims and objectives, many organizations include some features associated with functional structure to divisional structure. This type of organization is known as hybrid strategy.

VERTICAL CO-ORDINATION

Vertical co-ordination is the flow of information related to the activities in an organisation from top to bottom in the managerial hierarchy.

There are different ways of carrying out vertical co-ordination which are as follows

• Line and staff authority

• Delegation

• Centralisation versus decentralisation

• Formalisation

• Span of management

Line and staff authority

Authority exercised by managers over their subordinates in order to ensure that organisational goals are met is known as line authority.

Thus managers directly responsible for achieving organisational objectives are known as line managers (production and sales managers) and those mangers who advise and service line managers are known as staff managers (personnel manager).

Delegation

The process by which an individual manager or supervisor transfers part of his legitimate authority to a subordinate is known as delegation. But under this condition, the manager should bear in mind that the ultimate responsibility which has been entrusted to him by his own superior should not be passed on.

Centralisation versus decentralisation

The extent to which power and authority are retained at he top organisational levels is known as centralisation. In other words, organisations are centralised

HORIZONTAL CO-ORDINATION

Horizontal co-ordination is the connection of activities through flow of information across departments of the same levels. Due to increasing competition, an organisation must have adequate methods of conveying information to all departments so that they may be aware of the happenings within the organization and work together to achieve the companys goal. It is through slack resources, information systems and lateral relations that the information is exchanged in horizontal co-ordination.

Slack resources refer to extra resources that help to relieve both external and internal pressures and contribute to innovation. An example can be a mobile phone. Extra equipment or manpower therefore will help reducing tension as it allows a smoother co-ordination of activities.

As far as information systems is concerned, we find out that nowadays computerized information has become the sine qua non for organizational success since information are being exchanged at very high speed. One example can be the use of email. Hence, the entire organization can be connected via a local area network for rapid information transfer. Hence, computers are an effective means to transfer information.

Lateral relations on the other hand, is the co-ordination of efforts through communicating and problem soling with peers in other departments or units instead of seeking help from higher levels of the organizational hierarchy. This can be done through interaction that is individuals of different departments can interact among themselves and find solutions. Or on the other hand, there can be a liaison role that is someone who is employed to facilitate communication between different departments to ensure that the respective needs are met. His role is to maintain a good internal customer-supplier relationship. Moreover, lateral relations are also in the form of a taskforce whereby people from different units are appointed to work together and share ideas with a view to provide recommendations on important issues and try to recommend them.

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Marketing

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Marketing Essay.

Take two advertisements for similar products from any magazines of your choice. Write a report on them that includes

(i) A description of the advertisements and how you feel about them.

(ii) A description of what you think the advertisement is trying to achieve.

(iii) A conclusion and discussion that incorporates what you perceive to be the difference between the ads and how effective you think they are.

The two products that I chose to do my report on are Heineken and Carlsberg; both are lagers that compete in the same market. I found the Heineken advertisement in the UCD Student Union Freshers guide from the Year 001 and the Carlsberg ad was taken from GQ magazine.

The Heineken ad features a police line up of various types of bottle openers. This familiar scene is probably most famous for the film The Usual Suspects, a hit movie staring Kevin Spacey. There are five bottle openers in the line up, which has the typical height markings behind the 'suspects' to add to the authenticity of the scene. Each bottle opener is unique and each one would fit right in, in any bar or at any party. To the left of the last bottle opener is the reflection of a Heineken bottle, which is obviously in the one-way-mirror-room picking out the 'culprit' from the line up. Below the picture, which takes up the majority of the ad, is the Heineken slogan "The last word in beer" and an opened Heineken bottle cap.

The Carlsberg ad I took from GQ magazine, a monthly 'lad' mag. It was one of four Carlsberg ads in the magazine, all of which are from the same advertising campaign. Carlsberg play on their slogan "Probably the best lager in the world". They do this by having Carlsberg delivery vehicles pictured around the world at famous tourist sites, or in spectacular scenery. For example the four ads in the magazine had Carlsberg delivery vehicles, such as planes, boats and trucks, pictured in Venice, Islamabad, Tibet and the Canada. The ad that I chose to concentrate on had a Carlsberg airfoil landing on a lake in Maligne in Canada. The ad depicts a typical north American lake scene; the snow peaked mountains in the background, the perfect untouched lake showing a mirror image of the surrounding area, and a mountain cabin set on the lake with it's own jetty. To the right hand side of the ad is an airplane, completely green only for the Carlsberg logo. The plane has just landed to deliver its cargo of Carlsberg beer and is making it's way towards the cabin. Beneath the picture, which like the Heineken ad, takes up the majority of the space, is the Carlsberg slogan "Probably the best lager in the World".

I chose these to products to do my report on because they are two products that I am familiar with, and the style of advertising that they use, whether it is on television or in a magazine, is usually witty and humorous. This humor is present in the Heineken ad, with the parody on the Usual Suspects line up. Linking the product to a successful movie is always a masterstroke if you can pull it off, Ray Ban did it with Top Gun, and Nokia did it with The Matrix. Although these were more direct methods of advertising, they were both product placement in a movie, this association by Heineken proved to be very sharp and was well received by their target market. In the ad each bottle opener is immediately recognizable for what it is yet they are all distinctly different. Having the reflection of the Heineken bottle in the mirror adds to the humor of the scene.

The Carlsberg ad on the other hand, takes a completely different angle. This ad is clearly meant to attract a more mature drinker, one who is inspired by beautiful scenery and appreciates nature. I find the ad visually appealing, with the simplicity of the scenery and the all green airplane combining well. It's easy to look at, and the slogan below is well known amongst drinkers. Using different scenes from around the world, playing on the international brand that Carlsberg is, is very clever. However I find that if you single out one of the ads in this particular campaign, it really is not much to look at. It does have some visual appeal but other than that it is very easy to glance over.

If I had to pick between the ads I would choose the Heineken ad. My choice would be based on the humour used in the ad, which I feel makes it more interesting. In the modern advertising environment it seems to be commonplace that the big beer brands use humor in their advertisements, Budweiser proved to be hugely successful with their Wasssupp! ads. This run of the day humor that people can relate to is all over the television, both in the current Heineken and Carlsberg ads which feature humorous situations that the drinkers experience. Heineken tapped in to this humor when they launched their latest campaign (attached), where the personified bottle openers are stalker like figures that are obsessed with get their hands on a Heineken bottle.

I believe that a consumer product, should use in its advertising, examples of the product being used or conjure up memories of the product being used in the mind of the audience viewing the ad. The combination of the bottle openers and the bottle in the Heineken advertisement help the viewers recollect memories of actually going about opening, then drinking the beer. Which in turn associates it with nights out and the good times that one might have experienced. Whilst the Carlsberg ad brings up no real association with the beer itself, only with the brand name and it's international popularity. I feel that this is what is really missing in the Carlsberg ad. It is an ad that I cannot draw an association with. However that is not to say that somebody who has been to a lake like the one pictured would not draw up their own association with the product it is just not effective on myself. The market that Carlsberg target is a predominantly male market which spans from 18 to about 5, but these ads that will only appeal to the minority of their audience.

Both Heineken and Carlsberg have drawn up their ads to keep current consumers of their product interested and also to attract new consumers. When people think of these beers they are both fairly similar, most people in Ireland would have Heineken, Carlsberg and Budweiser in the same bracket. Three of the most popular beers in the world, almost every bar has all three on tap and the majority of people have their favorite of the three but if worst came to worst would have no real problem drinking any of the three for one night if they had to. This is the obstacle that these companies have to over come, they are all vying for the same large market, the18 to 5 predominantly male drinker.

The Heineken ad has clearly gone for the younger age group, this is clear by the magazine that they were advertising in, a college freshman guide. This is a very good place to advertise especially in UCD. Heineken sponsor the European rugby cup, and the UCD rugby academy. The majority of college students who would go and watch a European rugby cup match would watch it in Donnybrook, which is only a ten-minute walk from UCD. So by sponsoring the rugby events and advertising in the freshers guide Heineken are attracting an audience of young male drinkers who play rugby a very popular sport in south Dublin. The long line of sponsored events, teams, and competitions founded the parallels between Heineken and rugby. Heineken have done some excellent marketing to capture this young male audience and by advertising in UCD Fresher's guide they are cementing the popularity amongst their target market, it even has a popularly used nickname 'Heino'. This nickname is derived from the stereotypical Heineken drinker, a young male living in south Dublin.

Carlsberg has a different objective in the Irish and U.K. markets to that of Heineken. They put most of the their sponsorship into soccer. They are the official sponsors of the 00 World Cup, the Irish football team and they had their name on the Liverpool jerseys' for years. This ad campaign is not trying to attract young male drinkers, when I say young I mean 18-1, it is going for the older age bracket from about 8-40. The picturesque scenery as a visual attraction would not really appeal too strongly to a young age group as much as it would to an older drinker, who believes that they are drinking a more sophisticated lager, one that embodies the spirit of the ads. Both beer brands are known for their quality, but where as with Heineken there is an image associated with the drink, Carlsberg try to play on their heritage and Quality. This heritage is very well depict in the ad, the rustic scene on a lake, where an old remote log cabin is receiving its delivery by what appears to be the only means possible. There is also an association with a seaplane, they are very extravagant rarely appearing outside of Hollywood movies, and even then their appearance is only in a major scene. By using the heritage and the extravagance of the cabin and the plane Carlsberg are showing their customers that their beer is a quality brand that is a cut above the rest and that the age of the brand name is testament to their quality.

The ads are very different even though they are similar products competing in the same market. Both beers are generally accepted, as quality brands people know by and large what they are getting when they buy a pint or a bottle of either. However Carlsberg being the older beer does have more of a heritage as such, they have been in production for longer and were the first of the mega beer brands to be created. This is an excellent advantage in their particular market, Levis has a similar advantage and they use it to it's full benefit. Advertising every unique aspect of your brand is an excellent method to distinguish yourself from competitors, and to attract new consumers. When Tesco entered the Irish market they were very successful, but Dunnes reacted by playing on the fact that they were an indigenous business, and this helped offset some of the business that they lost to Tesco. Heineken use their current standing in the market place to their advantage, already comfortable with the knowledge that they are a popular beer with their market, they have chosen to demonstrate that they are a beer for the younger drinker. Relating to a recent movie and using a humorous take off demonstrates that they are in fact 'in touch' with the latest generation of drinkers. This method of trying to appeal to the latest styles and fashions goes on all the time in advertising and is probably most notable when celebrities appear in advertising. Pepsi would be one of the companies most guilty of constantly trying to keep up with the trends, having had music acts such as The Spice Girls and most recently Britney Spears appear in their television commercials only to be almost immediately replaced by 'the next big thing'.

It is hard to measure the success of a billboard adverting campaign, most of the more notable have received coverage because of their lewdness more than the wit and intelligence that went in to creating them. One campaign particular that comes to mind was a bennetton campaign that was launched in Europe that never made it to Ireland. It featured a zebra mounting a black white horse, with the slogan 'United Colours if Benetton'. This ad was very quickly banned as distasteful, and unsuitable for the large and varied audience that it would be exposed to. Although the phrase 'there is no such thing as bad publicity' springs to mind, the last thing Benetton needed after their problems with animal testing and the fires involved with their formula one team, was for a whole advertising campaign to be withdrawn. In recent years there has been a lot of controversy involved with advertising alcohol, there are censors that ban ads that depict alcohol in the wrong light, as a necessity or an anti depressant. Many people feel that companies that produce alcohol should not be allowed sponsor events. The same restriction was enforced on Tobacco companies, they are very restricted as to what and where they can advertise and also of their ad must feature government warnings in most western countries. In fact this type of restriction has already been enforced in UCD by the Students Union when they introduced their new Alcohol policy. The Heineken ad was on the back cover of the freshers guide from 001, but all advertising for alcohol was prohibited from this year's fresher's guide.

When considering the impact that the two separate ads were intended to have you have to consider where in the magazine they were found. The Carlsberg ad from GQ magazine was a two-page spread located before the fashion section in the magazine. More and more magazines designate the first ten or so pages of their magazine to advertising, this is more noticeable in American magazines, which have up to twenty pages at the start of the magazines taken up by just advertising. The problem with a trend like this is that the reader would just skip through this large section already knowing what to expect, Carlsberg avoided this by placing their ad just before a very popular section in the magazine. The fashion section of a lad mag is always one that the more mature reader with an expendable income would browse through with some interest. This is exactly the type of person that Carlsberg are targeting and they have found the perfect platform to attract their market. The Heineken ad also used their placement in the fresher's guide very well, the back cover of the magazine. This is prime advertising space and is always hotly contested for by major brands. The ad is sideways across the whole back page and is easily distinguishable as a Heineken ad. This is the page that is scene most by people, if the magazine is being read it is there to been seen by everyone, or if the magazine is lying down there is a 50-50 chance that it is the ad that is face up.

Given the restrictions that Carlsberg and Heineken have to obey when they draft up a new ad the two ads are excellent, they both send out attractive messages about the separate brands, and by doing so in a completely different manner. The prime market that the beers are competing for is so large that it is often broke down and this is done so by age, in this case. Both of the ads were placed very well in respective publications that are well known for a certain type of reader, and Carlsberg and Heineken used this to their advantage.

Please note that this sample paper on Marketing is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Marketing, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Marketing will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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