My Essay Examples: February 2019

Wednesday, February 27, 2019

Analytical Review of:The Road To Wigan Pier

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Publication Facts

Title The Road To Wigan Pier

Author George Orwell

Date of Original Publication 17

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Authorship

What is the author's social background (e.g. class, ethnicity, gender)?

Eric Arthur Blair, who took the pen name George Orwell, was born in India in 10. His parents were members of the Indian Civil Service which put them in the lower half of the middle class. After receiving an education at Eaton College in England he joined the Indian Imperial Police in Burma in 1. Following five years of service he left the police and began living in self imposed poverty for several years. He used these experiences to write several books detailing the lives of the poor in England. He fought for the Loyalists in the Spanish Civil War and when the threat of communism arose he fought against its spread. This caused him to have to flee for his life. On Jan. 1st, 150 Orwell died in London, England.

Content Analysis

What is this book about? What happens in it? (Please limit your answer to seven sentences or less.)

The Road To Wigan Pier is essentially two books in one. The first part of the book is a biographical account of Orwell living in poverty along with the common lower class man. Here he attempts to blend himself with a lower class of people in an effort to see life through their eyes and live life in their shoes. This encompasses everything from going down into the coal mines, to living in the squalor of a lodging house, and surviving on the meager pay of about 0 shillings a week. In the second part of the book Orwell takes this new found knowledge and uses it as a means of promoting a Socialist society. He discusses the idea of Socialism from all points of view, both pro and con, and in the end he sums it all up into one sentence, "The fact that has got to be faced is that to abolish class-distinctions means abolishing a part of yourself."(161). The book ends with Orwell's personal feelings about Socialism, where he states that opposing Socialism is like suicide, especially when "…Fascism has conquered half of Europe"(1).

What genre of book is this (e.g. autobiography, political tract, novel)?

This book is written from a first person point of view. Orwell refers to himself as "I" throughout the entire book. He also draws upon other authors to either support his ideas or to discount any anti-socialist views.

Is the book didactic Does it have a message for its readers? If so, what? If not, why not?

I feel that this book definitely has a message for its readers. On the most basic of levels it gives the reader a first hand account of what life was like for lower class families in England in the early to mid 100's. However it also goes beyond that and gives the reader some insight as to how socialism would have helped these poor families. In The Road To Wigan Pier Orwell definitely got his main message across to all readers, and that is that socialism can only be positive for all parties involved.

What is Orwell's attitude toward socialism? What does he regard as the movement's strengths and weaknesses?

Orwell is definitely pro socialism and he states that under socialist rule even if we are deprived of all else at least everyone will have enough to eat. The one main strength that socialism has going for it is the majority of the population is lower class and is living below the poverty level. It is this class of people who tend to accept socialism more willingly and would welcome it into their lives. Despite the fact that Orwell is pro socialism he does a descent job of showing both sides, and he informs the reader of why the middle class and the upper class oppose it. Unfortunately the main reason he gives for their opposition to socialism is simply that they like being the upper class and they don't want to mix with other "undesirable" lower class people. This leads in to one of the weaknesses of socialism, which is that class lines would become blurred, and the upper class simply likes the status of being the upper class.

Contextual Analysis

What sources does the book draw on?

The first half of the book is written purely on Orwell's experiences in living with the poor of England. He also uses government figures when relating to the reader just how poor the poor really are by discussing cost of living expenses. The second half of the book is also based on Orwell's personal experiences, but in this section he includes excerpts of books by other authors to support his views or to discount theirs. A third source Orwell draws on is direct accounts of people of all classes living in England and in English colonies.

How does the book reflect the period in which it was written (e.g. social concerns, historical retrospective, concerns about the future)? Cite specific events that happened around the time of the book's initial publication.

In my opinion this book is just a glorified propaganda pamphlet for the socialist party. During the time this book was written Europe was facing the expansion of fascist rule under Hitler and there seemed to be no stopping his defeat of neighboring countries. World War I had just ended and England was facing some extremely tough times with an even more difficult future ahead. People were looking for an alternative and according to Orwell socialism was the most obvious choice.

Historical Application

What type(s) of source(s) is this book (i.e. primary or secondary)?

This book is a primary source written in the first person point of view.

What value does it have for the study of socialism between the two world wars?

Between the two world wars Europe was a very volatile and unstable place. There was a constant battle between fascism, communism, and socialism that affected almost every one on one level or another. During this time England was spared from the initial spread of fascism simply because it is not connected by land to the rest of Europe. This gave England the opportunity to form a new government and react to the spread of fascism. One can see by reading this book that socialism may have been the best choice for England in the mid 100's, but not all people saw it as a positive movement. However by studying the society of England in the 100's one can envision what socialism would have done for England, and how it would have rescued tens of thousands from a life of poverty and squalor.

What impact might this book have today or have had at the time of its publication?

When this book was published I'm sure it was considered to be very controversial for the main reason that it forced the reader to look into the daily life of the poor in England. People, especially those against socialism, probably didn't want to know just how bad off the poor were, because ignorance is bliss. By closing their eyes to the truth the upper class could more easily sit in their comfortable homes and deny that poverty was such an immense problem. On the other hand I'm quite sure that the poor were grateful to finally have a voice that people would listen to. The only down side of this is that the poor most likely never got a chance to read Orwell's book. Orwell definitely accomplished what he set out to do with this book, and that was to spread the belief that socialism was the best road for England to take.

Who would appreciate this book, and who would object to it, either at the time of its initial publication or today?

Those who would appreciate this book and those who would oppose it can be easily separated by party lines. Those who oppose socialism would probably see this book as simply more socialist propaganda to spread to the public. They would feel that it is too one sided and doesn't give the reader an accurate account of the big picture. Supporters of socialism would definitely appreciate this book because it shows how the poor live and how much their lives would improve under the institution of socialism. As for the main characters in the book, the poor, I don't know how they would react to the book. It doesn't show them as bad people, but by reading the book they might feel as if they are being used by the socialist party as a way to drum up sympathetic support for socialism. These are a proud people who are used to living life at a certain level and I don't know that they would all welcome government support with open arms.

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A history of evolutionary theory

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Evolutionary theory itself has evolved in man's quest for understanding his origins. Many individuals have contributed to it, each modifying the work of his predecessors to address new data or resolve problems that arose from new information. This paper will briefly summarize some of the most defining contributions and trace the development of the theory of evolution from early to modern times. Views if origins will be categorized as early, pre-Darwinian, Darwinian, and post-Darwinian.

Early Views of Origins

The best-known early view of origins is that of the Hebrews. The Torah taught that an eternal, omnipotent, and all-wise God created the entire universe, including man, by calling it into existence. Creation began with apparent age, and complexity and design was woven into every detail. The species (Latin = kinds) were fixed by reproductive limitations which resulted when God commanded each to "bring forth after its own kind". God created man in his own image and was his showpiece of workmanship. 1 Acknowledgement of this doctrine established man's accountability to his maker. This view was subsequently embraced by Christianity, which had its origins in Judaism, but not until after the Greek Empire arose.

The Greeks adopted a view of origins that included a multitude of anthropomorphic, deities. The gods of the Greeks though superior in power and knowledge to man, were themselves subject to the laws of nature and came from primordial matter. Gaia (Mother Earth) gave rise to all life, both men and gods. There were many views as to how this occurred, but most philosophers attributed it to various processes involving air and water.

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Anaximander (ca.611-547 BC) is sometimes regarded to have developed the first written theory of evolution. He believed that the earth underwent a series of dramatic changes, each resulting in changed life forms. The early earth was covered by water, and the primary life form was fish. During one of its changes the continents appeared, and some fish became terrestrial. Humans, which to this point had lived as internal parasites inside these fish, broke free of their hosts and began their history of independence.

Plato, despite his renown as a Greek scholar and philosopher, contributed little to the study of origins. Truth, to him, was to be derived through introspection, and scientific observation held little merit. 4 This was not so with Plato's student, Aristotle (84- BC). Unlike his mentor, Aristotle was a keen observer, and he set forth observation as the key to science. In his Scala Naturae, species were hiearchially arranged from simple to complex like rungs on a ladder. Since each species was perfectly adapted to its position in the ladder, there was no need for significant change. Even so, the bottom rungs contained organisms that arose spontaneously from inorganic sources. 5

Although modern evolutionists have rejected most of Aristotle's views, he briefly toyed with the idea of limited natural selection. He believed that some anatomical features, such as incisors and molar teeth, occasionally appeared for no purpose. If such a feature were useful, it would be preserved. If not, it would cease. 6

This concept, however, was never well developed in his teachings, and emphasis was placed upon the fixity and permanence of the species.

The polytheistic view of the Greeks persisted into the Roman Empire with simple name changes for the deities and minor modifications in the myths. It wasn't until the rise of Christianity that large numbers of people seriously challenged it. The Christians, with their Jewish origins, clung to the Genesis account of creation. Jesus Christ, himself, quoted Genesis numerous times in such a way to endorse its literal interpretation. 7 When Constantine became a Christian, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

The almost unlimited power of the Roman church was wielded with arrogance and lack of reason, stifling scientific inquiry. Proclamations were made as to the exact day and hour that the earth had been created. Galileo, already famous for developing a working telescope, was punished for endorsing the heliocentric theory of the solar system. Reaction to this intellectual dishonesty lead to a questioning of all that the church taught, including the theory of intelligent creation. The Reformation of the seventeenth century and the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century were largely due to reactions to extra-Biblical decrees of the Roman church.

Before leaving the topic of special creation, it should be noted that, though this view has ancient roots, it is still the view of most people in the western world. Many prestigious scientists believe that, putting theology and religious doctrine aside, there is more empirical evidence to support a model of creation with intelligent design than there is to support a model of evolution through random processes.

Pre-Darwinian Views of Origins

Georges Buffon (1707-88) interpreted geological strata as the results of stages in the earth's history. Each stratum was the result of some cataclysmic catastrophe such as an earthquake or volcano. This explained why so many fossils were of organisms which no longer lived, having become extinct through such catastrophes.

First proposed by James Hutton (176-7) and then argued by Charles Leyell (1787-1875) in his Principles of Geology, the uniformatarian theory taught that sedimentary strata was the result of long time periods involving ordinary forces. This view gained quick acceptance and replaced the theory of catastrophism taught by Buffon.

A contemporary of Buffon and Hutton, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist, was driven by a sense of having been called by God to develop a classification of organisms. Linnaeus, usually considered the father of modern taxonomy, saw nature as a "Divine Order" of God's creation, and his own role to develop a "natural classification" which would present God's order to the world. At first Linnaeus believed that species were fixed, but after his observations in the hybridization of many plants, he suggested that new genera could be developed by hybridization. Ironically, though Linnaeus wanted his life's work to exalt God as the creator, his system of classification is now primarily used to describe evolutionary relationships.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-18) is best remembered for his theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. In his theory of transforism, he presented the idea that fluids moving throughout an organism became "excited" as they were used. This lead to increased size and complexity of the used organs that were subsequently inherited by their offspring. Traits and organs that were not used ceased to exist. Also, Lamarck believed that there was a tendency of all development to be progressive, resulting in newer, more complex species. He reasoned that the fluids in non-living matter could only produce small, simple organisms spontaneously.

Although neither of Lamarck's views is considered credible today, his was the first scientific theory of evolution. Further, his work in the natural sciences resulted in a unified science which he called "Biology".

Perhaps the most influential writing that would stir the imagination of Charles Darwin was Essay on the Principles of Populations, 178, by Thomas Malthus (1766-184). Malthus described the problem of overpopulation in plants, animals, and even man. His view was that any population, left to itself, would eventually outgrow its food source. His motive was to establish the need for moral restraint in reproduction, but Darwin saw his work as an insight into the competitive environment that all species must face to survive.

Darwinism

The writings of Malthus and Lyell were to find significance in the mind of Charles Darwin. He was given a post as a naturalist for an extended voyage aboard the H.M.S. Beagle, from which he acquired a wealth of observations of various organisms. It was during this voyage that he began developing a theory of adaptation based upon natural selection, though it was not until twenty-two years later that he wrote and published Origin of the Species by Means of Natural Selection. Though "survival of the fittest" was not a phrase that he actually coined, it describes his view of gradual evolution through natural selection. Small, random variations in some individuals within an isolated population coupled with changes in the environment created a competitive advantage for those

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Friday, February 22, 2019

Dracula and The Lost Boys

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Family

The idea of becoming a vampire has been embraced as a deviant alternative to fulfill a sense of youth because it offers eternal life and rebellion. Vampires target humans in order to suck their blood and provide nourishment for themselves. Most often families are targeted and destroyed, because the vampires are preoccupied by the idea of creating their own families. Vampires do not create families in the traditional sense, they follow no norms. Although vampires may have what they refer to as a family unit, there is no marriage involved. Marriage means monogamy and vampires are not monogamous, rather they are quite sexual, with both men and women. For this reason, vampires pose many threats to the traditional families.

In Stoker's Dracula, the threats Dracula poses are over Jonathan, Mina, and Lucy. Although Jonathan is engaged, in a committed relationship, he is tempted by three women. Had the women been able to carry out their plan of seduction, Jonathan would have easily fallen into their trap. It may be that Jonathan is hypnotized by Dracula, or by the women, who are Dracula's pawns. If Jonathan had fallen prey to the women, he would have jeopardized his relationship with Mina. But Jonathan does not fall prey to the women, but rather Dracula himself, which leaves him deathly ill and very confused. Mina has lost the Jonathan she once knew.

Dracula also targets virginal Lucy. Lucy already shows that she has a sexual side when she talks about marrying three men. "Why can't they let a girl marry three men, or as many want her, and save all this trouble?" (Stoker 68) Lucy's comment may mean that she would prefer to have more than one sexual partner, because perhaps one may not

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Family

be enough to satisfy her needs. Since Lucy mentions the word, "marriage", she attempts to legalize her need for multiple sexual partners. Lucy is engaged (to one man), but may be considered "damaged goods", since Dracula has been making nightly visits to her. Dracula's motive of targeting Lucy is to procreate, and make Lucy the mother of his child.

The threat of vampires does not end with Dracula- The Lost Boys also has one mastermind head vampire that poses a major threat to families. Max purposely targets fatherless children in order to become a surrogate father to them. He then uses them as puppets to do his "dirty work." According to Rob Latham, "The precise relationship between David's gang and Max is never fully made clear while Max is identified as the 'head' vampire who ostensibly uses David as his pawn to enslave other teens, the few scenes of them together suggest that Max is genuinely afraid of David and not entirely certain of his loyalty" (Latham 145). Just as "normal" teenagers rebel against their parents, who are their authority figures, so do David and his gang, against Max, who is their surrogate father. The teen vampires have a great deal of autonomy and do not necessarily need to follow all of Max's rules.

In order to complete his vampire family, Max targets Lucy and her sons. Max uses David and his gang to lure Michael into the world of vampires. Michael is not infected by being bitten, but rather by drinking David's blood. Michael's behavior after this incident resembles that of a drug-addict. Just as peer pressure influences teens to begin using drugs, similarly, David's gang influences Michael into the vampire

Family 4

"initiation." Drug addictions alone are a tremendous threat to families. The blackouts the victims experience are very much like hangovers that drug addicts experience. Drugs

have a sort of mind control over the users much like how vampires have control over their victims.

In Santa Carla, the teenagers are easy targets because they are mostly unsupervised and the parents appear to be neglectful. Latham argues, "...the members of the original '60s generation are depicted as...an easy-going generation of neglectful parents who have left their children ill-equipped to resist the blandishments of mass culture" (Latham 14). Michael and Sam's own mother is preoccupied by dating the head-vampire, and are thus left unsupervised for the majority of the time. According to Nina Auerbach, "Weist is so distracted by working and flirting that she abandons her boys to a vampire gang" (Auerbach 168). The divorced mother is so caught up in the act of courtship, that she unknowingly invites her vampire-boyfriend into her home and into her family. Ultimately it is the mother who is responsible for the destruction within her family because instead of protecting her children, she exposes her sons to danger.

The issues of sexuality and the dangers associated with it are carefully examined by Michel Foucault. He studies the shift from the ancient Greek to Classical Christian societies. Foucault discusses how sexual pleasure, although a legitimate part of the Greek social system, is still a source of conflict- especially as a part of social relations between the different social classes. Both Lucys (Dracula and The Lost Boys) are not married, but lead a sexual life. Young, virginal Lucy Westerna after her nightly visits from Dracula, becomes a sex vixen herself. But Lucy's sexual acts are represented

Family 5

through the sucking of blood. In Dracula, the symbolics of blood has been replaced with an association of sexuality. The vampire act of biting another is referred to as an "infection", and an infection is usually associated to some sort of a disease. Foucault argues, in regards to Greco-Roman thought of sexuality, "This disease, which is 'shameful in itself,' is 'dangerous in that it leads to stagnation; harmful to society in that it goes against the propagation of the species'" (16). This belief is similar to that of Christian society. Losing one's virginity to the sexual act (or the symbolism of sex), will lead to shame, danger, and ultimately will destroy families and societies. Lucy destroys not only her own life, but that of her fiance (her family), her friends, and anyone she makes her victim.

Lucy from The Lost Boys, although is a divorced mother of two teenage sons, still pursues a relation that would be most likely sexual with the head vampire. Foucault argues that "One already notes a certain association of sexual activity with evil" (15). In the case of Lucy and Max, their sexuality is definitely associated with evil. If Lucy had taken the relationship with Max further, she would surely have jeopardized the lives of her family, including her own. Although Lucy's affair would not be extra-marital, since she is divorced, her sexual relations would still be wrong, as an unmarried woman.

According to Foucault, the Christian belief regarding abstinence is "...renunciation can give access to a spiritual experience of truth and love that sexual activity excludes" (0). This principle would mean that sex and love do not go "hand in hand", it is one or the other. If one participated in sexual activity, in which the goal is not to procreate, it would mean that individual became part of something that is loveless and

Family 6

spiritless. All in all, being sexual is evil, in that if it is not used to procreate and build families, it is used to break down families.

Just as in Dracula, the vampire targets Lucy to create a "family", Max also targets Lucy to complete his own family. Max states to Lucy, "Boys need a mother." Before Max met Lucy, it was just him and his boys (David and his gang). Similar to the Brady bunch, it is the story of two families (almost) merging into one. Michael's vampire brothers coerce him into becoming one of them. "Drink some of this Michael. Be one of us." Michael follows the lead of the gang in order to rebel, and that is the reason for his new ear piercing. The vampires try to lure Michael in with an offer that is difficult to refuse, "You'll never grow old, you'll never die."

Auerbach argues that, "Max's exposure as head vampire not only indicts the careless sexuality of the mother who exposes her sons to danger; it undermines the autonomy of the vampires themselves" (Auerbach 168). Just as Lucy from The Lost Boys not only endangers herself, but her family as well, so does Lucy from Dracula. In the beginning, Lucy is unaware of her visits from Dracula and the consequences she will have to endure. Lucy from The Lost Boys also has a sort of mind control over her that she is unaware of what is occurring within her family. Max's charm is the control he uses over Lucy. Had it not been for Lucy's preoccupation with dating, it would be difficult to lure Michael into the world of vampirism.

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VDU

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What are VDUs?

VDU health and safety regulations define them as items of display screen equipment like computer screens or microfiche readers. Screens for showing films, videos and television pictures are not covered by the regulations. Neither are screens used for surveillance.

Are they bad for your health?

Not if they are used properly and the necessary precautions are in place. The legal rights and duties covering VDUs are set out in part VII of the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (General Application) Regulations, 1.

Do the regulations apply to me?

They do if you use a VDU continuous periods of more than one hour.

What must my employer do?

Your employer is required to evaluate your health and safety at your workstation with particular reference to eyesight, physical difficulties and mental stress. Steps must be taken to control any risks to health and safety. Some of these steps are set out in the box.

Do I have any responsibilities as an employee?

Yes. You must co-operate with your employer on issues relating to health and safety and use equipment and appliances properly.

What problems can arise from working with VDUs?

The three main complaints are eyesight, physical difficulties and mental stress.

How can VDUs affect your eyes?

Although VDUs do not cause eye damage, they can highlight problems that are already there. And they can lead to eye strain and eye fatigue if you don't take the necessary precautions.

Eye fatigue can be caused by staying in the same position and concentrating for a long time, bad VDU positioning, poor legibility of the screen or source documents, bad lighting, glare and reflections, or a drifting, flickering or jittering image on the screen.

What about upper limb pains?

A range of work-related pains and discomforts to the arm, hand and shoulder areas are now described as 'work related upper limb disorders? (WRULDs). These range from temporary fatigue or soreness to cramp and even ongoing pain in the muscles or nerves.

These effects are thought to be caused by a number of factors rather than any single cause. Holding a part of the body (back, neck or head) rigid for a long time can cause discomfort in the muscles, bones and tendons. Awkward positioning of the hands and wrist relative to the work being carried out is another likely factor.

These effects can be avoided by using proper equipment, suitable furniture, and by training and changing the way work is carried out.

How can VDUs cause fatigue and stress?

Stress and fatigue can result if tasks require a very high degree of concentration and vigilance or when routine tasks cause boredom. Many symptoms can also be caused by stress arising from non-VDU aspects of the work. These are more likely to be caused by poor organisation of the work, lack of control by the employee over the pace of the work, under-utilisation of skills, high-speed repetitive work or working in isolation.

The onset of fatigue and stress can be minimised by careful design, selection and location of VDUs, good design of the workstation, its environment and the task involved as well as training, consultation and involvement of the employee.

Can I use a VDU if I'm pregnant?

Yes. Research has concluded that there's VDU use poses no risk to an unborn child. But pregnant women should take frequent breaks to prevent muscle fatigue.

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Wednesday, February 20, 2019

Theories of Crime: BECCARIA, LOMBROSO AND DURKHEIM

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The theories on crime deterrence and punishment have changed throughout history. Beccaria, Lombroso and Durkheim are three theorists who have changed the way deterrence, punishment and crime generally is viewed within society. This essay will first explore each of the theorists' ideas separately. It will then examine the similarities and differences between each theory.

Cesare Beccaria, born in 178, focused on deterrence as the means of crime prevention. Beccaria fits into the Classical School of thinking, and wrote in a time when torture was used regularly to obtain information from people, and where capital punishment could be used for any type of offence. Punishment was based on a retributive means, where the punishment, or harm, given was equal to the harm caused by the perpetrator. In 1764, Beccaria published a book called 'On crimes and Punishments', where he theorised that this approach did not discourage determined criminals from committing crimes. He suggested, however, by taking away their liberty through incarceration that this would deter other would-be criminals not to commit similar crimes, and would also prevent the perpetrator to recommit the crime again. He based this theory on the utilitarian ideals 'the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number' (Beccaria 1764/14, p. 7).

In his book, Beccaria theorised the deterrence to a crime would increase in effectiveness the faster the punishment was delivered. He also argued that the punishment should be proportionate to the crime committed, as, following the utilitarian ideals, this would be in the interest to the greater good. Beccaria also examined the fact that at the time punishment for the same crime could range from nothing to the death penalty, as it was to the complete discretion of the magistrate to what punishment was appropriate. Beccaria argued that the same crime should attract similar penalties, as this, according to his theory, would act as a greater deterrence.

Beccaria believed that the death penalty did not work as a deterrence to crime. He theorised that killing a person was retributive and had shown in the past that this did not stop the determined criminal committing an offence. He believed, on the other hand, that taking away a person's liberty through incarceration was a greater deterrence, as the duration of the punishment is a far stronger deterrent than 'the more powerful but momentary action' (Beccaria 1764/14 p. 81) of capital punishment.

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Unlike Beccaria, Cesare Lombroso looked at the physical and psychological aspects of the makeup of a 'criminal'. Born in 185, Lombroso was a doctor who theorised that some 'criminals' were biologically determined. From the Positivist School of thinking, his research emphasised the need to study the individual using measurements from economic, social and anthropological data. Lombroso performed many autopsies on male criminals throughout his research, where he found many features that were comparable with primitive humans (Vold, Bernard and Snipes 18). He also performed research on living people, both criminals and non-criminals. His findings of both the autopsies and the study involving live specimens were published in 1876 in the book 'Criminal Man'.

In his finding, Lombroso develops and explores his theory on criminal behaviour, where he claimed that certain physical aspects, such as anomalies in the size of the head, eye defects, pouches in the cheek, defects in the thorax and imbalance of the hemispheres of the brain could assist in ascertaining whether a person is a 'criminal' (Lombroso 111). He called these factors, as well as others not mentioned above, 'atavism'. He also theorised that a 'criminal' is a throwback to primitive times, as shows 'the ferocious instincts of primitive humanity and the inferior animals' (Lombroso 111, p. xxv).

In his book 'The Female Offender', published in 10, Lombroso theorises that most females are not criminal. He found that the women that are criminals, most are only occasional criminals that commit through means other than biological. However, according to Lombroso, there are some females offenders that are atavistic criminals. The female atavistic offender is often harder to detect and is often more vicious than her male counterpart.

While Lombroso looks at crime at the individual level, Emile Durkheim examines crime from the social perspective. Born two decades after Lombroso in 1858, Durkheim theorised that crime is normal (18). He elaborates on his theory in 'The Normal and the Pathological' (18), where he theorises that a society without crime is impossible. Developing on this idea, Durkheim theorises that for crime to not exist, every person would have to have the same sentiments on everything, to the same degree and intensity. If this were to happen, 'crime would not thereby disappear; it would merely change its form' (Durkheim 18/14, p. 85).

Durkheim also theorised that crime was useful, in that it help develops change in social morality and reforms in law. He develops this idea and wrote '… in order that these transformations may be possible, the collective sentiments at the basis of morality must not be hostile to change, and consequently must have but moderate energy' (Durkheim 18/14, p. 87). Furthermore, he theorises that without crime, society would become stagnant and would not progress.

In 187 Durkheim published 'Suicide', where he studied suicide rates. He found that the rate increased greatly when there were times of economic decline or growth. He called this 'state of inadequate regulation "anomie"' (Vold et al 18, p. 10). This is not associated with crime 'unless there is also a breakdown of social norms or rules' (Vold et al 18, p. 1).

Durkheim and Beccaria both looked at the crime from the societal level, but theorised in different areas. Beccaria took the Classical approach and was more interested in using deterrence in preventing crime. Durkheim, on the other hand, took the Positivist position and focused more on society's behaviour and interaction, and said that crime was normal and was needed for society to move forward. Beccaria looked at crime as a menace to society and theorised that it was not beneficial. Beccaria focused more on reform and how society could use deterrence as a means to stop crime, while Durkheim theorised that crime would always exist, and would only stop if everyone agreed and believed the same things. Durkheim also theorised that if one definition of crime were to be eliminated, it would only be redefined and shifted towards other behaviours.

Similar to Durkheim, Lombroso fits into the Positivist school of theory. Where they differ is the level of analysis the theorists used. Durkheim, as established previously, looked at crime from the societal level. Lombroso, however, looked at crime on the individual level. Where Durkheim looked at crime as a normal occurrence in society, Lombroso looked at crime as, at least in part, having a biological foundation. Lombroso looked at the causes of crime from a physical and psychological perspective, and theorised that the characteristic of some 'criminals' could be attributed to physical abnormalities of a person. Durkheim believed that crime was a result of differences in beliefs and values in society, and thus would always exist.

Lombroso and Beccaria looked at crime from different perspectives. Lombroso focused on the individual, whereas Beccaria looked at crime through society as a whole. Both theorists also belong to different schools of thinking; Beccaria belongs to the Classical school whereas Lombroso is a member of the Positivist school. Beccaria, through his studies, focused on deterrence and the need to reform the 'criminal'. Lombroso, though, looked at the physical and psychological attributes that made up a 'criminal, and believed that these characteristics were inherited through generations. He also theorised that a person with a predisposition of crime through their physical abnormalities could not be reformed, as Beccaria suggested.

Each theorist examined in this essay have focused on crime differently; Beccaria looked at using deterrence as a means to reduce crime, Lombroso looked at the biological makeup of a person, with certain abnormalities possibly making up a 'criminal', and Durkheim looked as crime being a normal occurrence within society. All the theorists looked at in this essay have influenced the way society looks at crime, and have provided a basis for other theorists to expand and explore the causes of crime that exist today.

Please note that this sample paper on Theories of Crime: BECCARIA, LOMBROSO AND DURKHEIM is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Theories of Crime: BECCARIA, LOMBROSO AND DURKHEIM, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Theories of Crime: BECCARIA, LOMBROSO AND DURKHEIM will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Tuesday, February 19, 2019

Affirmative Action

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Affirmative action is an attempt by the United States to amend a long history of racial and sexual discrimination. But these days it seems to incite, not ease, the nations internal divisions. Opponents of affirmative action say that the battle for equal rights is over, and that requiring quotas that favor one group over another is discrimination. The people that defend it say that the playing field is not level, and that providing advantages for minorities and women is fair considering the discrimination those groups tolerated for years.

Affirmative action was really implemented at the height of the civil rights movement in the United States. Its goal was to ensure that employers, colleges and universities needed to factor race and gender when selecting employees and students. "Under affirmative action there would be an active effort to make sure that the work place and the university included people of all races and both sexes." (Hanmer). Prior to this in the United States, opportunity did not exist for all. Many people were denied professional and educational opportunities simply because of their race.

Affirmative action was to change the way employers hired. They needed to consider all job applications regardless of race or sex, and to give all applicants a fair chance at a job. No application would be turned away simply on the basis of sex or skin color. Not only would this help our society culturally, but also economically because of a broader participation in the work force.

Although affirmative action did include all minorities, it may have never became government policy if it were not for the civil rights movement that began in the 150's. The Civil War had ended slavery nearly a century before, but sill many African-Americans had never been granted full equality. Many states, particularly the South, passed laws "that were designed to segregate the white and black races and to keep African Americans in an inferior position in society." (Hamner). These laws were called "Jim Crow laws." Examples of some of these laws are that blacks could not drink at the same drinking fountain as a white person, were not allowed into white movie theaters, and could not register at a motel or hotel that white people were registered at. Also in most southern states, blacks could not vote.

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These laws also denied blacks equal education. Black children could not attend the same schools as white children. Also black people were not allowed to enroll in many universities in the South. The separate facilities were far from equal. "At black schools and colleges, the faculty were poorly paid, the facilities inferior, and the curriculum at black colleges was often limited to agricultural and technical programs designed to train southern blacks for low-paying jobs. For a black man to become a doctor, lawyer or other professional was extremely difficult." (Hamner).

Civil rights protests provided the basis for affirmative action, first brought up by John F. Kennedy. "In declaring the federal contractors must utilize "affirmative action" to recruit minority employees, [Kennedy] was responding to the claims of the civil rights movement." (Hamner). The Civil Rights Act of 164 most clearly defined affirmative action. There were seven sections to the bill. Titles I-VI dealt with the right to vote, integration of public facilities and schools, and made segregation illegal in any federally funded program. Title VII dealt primarily with employment practices. It clearly stated that discrimination in hiring was illegal.

The Supreme Court has considered the constitutionality of affirmative action in a number of cases involving such issues as admission to educational institutions, job hiring and promotion, exemption from ordinary seniority-bound job-layoff rules, award of public building contracts, and award of licenses for radio and television stations by the federal Communications Commission. "In the Supreme Court case, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, Allan Bakke, a white applicant, was rejected twice even though there were minority applicants admitted with significantly lower scores than his. Bakke maintained that judging him on the basis of his race was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court ruled that wile race was a legitimate factor in school admissions; the use of such inflexible quotas as the medical school had set aside was not. As a result of the decision Bakke was admitted to the school and graduated in 1. The Supreme Court, however, was split 5-4 in its decision on the Bakke case and addressed only a minimal number of the many complex issues that had sprung up about affirmative action." (Marshall).

An added source of complexity (or confusion) is the different level of freedom accorded the state and federal governments in regard to affirmative action. In the 180 case of Fullilove v. Klutznick, the Supreme Court upheld a federal program that required that minority-controlled businesses be preferred in awarding certain contracts. But, in 18, the court held that Richmond, Virginia, could not require the 0 percent of its building contracts be awarded to minority contractors. "The Court stated that the Fourteenth Amendment limits the states' use of racial preferences more strictly than it does the federal government's."(Marshall).

Affirmative action is very noble when looking at who benefits from the outcome, but take a closer look at affirmative action, the people that are involved and the damage it takes on our society surfaces many doubts. While supporters of affirmative action use black economic progress as proof that affirmative action is working there is more to the story. Obviously preferred treatment has furthered the careers of some blacks, but the evidence is mounting that these policies may be damaging to minorities. Huge legal liabilities, created by policies that make statistical under representation equivalent to discrimination, create incentives for employers to protect themselves by putting distance between their companies and predominantly black communities. (Bill).

Affirmative action weakens the spirit of the individual by making them think the reason they got the job or grant was because someone felt sorry for them. "This happened to a student at the University of Virginia Law School, a young black woman about to become the first black to make the prestigious Law Review when and affirmative action policy went into effect, supplanting a merit-based system of selection. When she heard that she had been thrust onto the Law review as an affirmative action case, she said angrily "Why are you doing this to me? Students want to be on the Law Review because they know big law firms look to [being on the] Law Review as an imprimatur… But if you have two tracks, one for the white kids and another for minorities, the minority who makes the Law Review forever has to defend and explain the door he came through. If he came through the one marked 'Minorities Only' the value is gone from it." (Bill)

Some women believe affirmative action will benefit them in the beginning because there is an incentive to hire women. This will do more to hinder than to help in the long run, it gives males a basis for their resentment and skepticism of females. This can cause additional tension between men and women that was not there before affirmative action.

Who really benefits from affirmative action policies? "William Melor of the libertarian Institute for Justice argues that most benefits of affirmative action go to educated middle-income minorities; "It helps those who need it the least. For those in the inner city, it's best useless and at worst creates a climate of hostility from other workers."(Billingsley).

But the failures of affirmative action programs to improve the economic conditions of their supposed beneficiaries, nor the hatred or stress they have endured have caused their supporters to have second thoughts. "The affirmative action bureaucrats have instead argued that the program will work if we just have more of it. They increase their own power and job prospects by finding yet more historical disadvantage and new groups of accredited victims. The city of San Francisco gives preference to gays in hiring and is exploring new protections for transsexuals and cross-dressers, alleged victims of straight society."(Billingsley).

By promoting a system of race-based entitlement, affirmative action is keeping America from evolving into a color-blind society where people are judged on their abilities, not the color of their skin. Affirmative action is a system of racial preferences and quotas that deny opportunity to individuals solely because they are not members of a preferred race or ethnic group. By locking deserving whites out of jobs and schools to make room for minorities with much weaker records, affirmative action heighten racial divisions and tensions.

Please note that this sample paper on Affirmative Action is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Affirmative Action, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Affirmative Action will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Friday, February 15, 2019

ADDING/MODIFYING SHIPS - BOTF

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ADDING/MODIFYING SHIPS - BOTF

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THIS FILE WAS CREATED AT RESOLUTION 104X768.

ANYTHING SMALLER MAY RESULT IN MISALIGNED TEXT.

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Contents

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Section A - Software, Requirements

Section B - The Files

1 - Shiplist.sst

- Shiptech.sst

- Shipdesc.sst

Section C - Ship Creation

1 - Major Race Ships

- Minor Race

- Alien Ships

4 - Image Attributes

Section D - Examples

1 - Example 1

- Example

Section A

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In order to successfully hack Birth of the Federation, youll need the following programs

1) Birth of the Federation version 1.0 (original files, no mods)

) Winzip version 6 or higher (available for free at www.winzip.com) running in Classic Mode

) A hex editor such as Ultraedit (available free for 0 days at www.ultraedit.com)

4) An image editing program such as Adobe Photoshop (for ship creation only)

5) Quick editor such as Wraiths BotFED editor version 1.4 (available for free at http//ssn.etmnet.com/st/)

6) A quick image viewer such as ACDSee version .0 or higher (available for free at www.acdsee.com)

Youll also need to know how to perform basic Windows operations such as renaming files, copying and pasting files, CTRL-selecting multiple files, etc.