How important are perceptions to the study of politics? Can we speak of 'pure' Eastern & Western, Northern and Southern political forms?

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In recent times, many Eastern countries have begun to acclaim "Asian Values" as principles for the West to perceive and respect. There may be numerous reasons for this phenomena, however the strongest one would have to be that they feel endangered by the sudden influence of Western culture and demands for democratisation and liberalisation as a result of their past economic expansion. This essay will endeavour to analyse the perceptions and values of the East and West, and also establish why there are different political forms around the world. Also, it is important to realise that there have been many anti-western and anti-eastern attitudes and sentiments since the end of the colonialism which will be examined in this paper. "It is not simply a matter of pitting the virtues of Asia against the vices of the West."

Encouraged by modernisation, global politics is being reconfigured along cultural lines. Political boundaries increasingly are redrawn to agree with cultural ones ethnic, religious, and civilisational. Cultural communities are replacing Cold War blocs, and the fault lines between civilizations are becoming the central lines of conflict in global politics. Further, Samuel P. Huntington believes that these cultural differences do not facilitate cooperation and cohesion but promote conflicts for a number of reasons. Firstly, everyone has multiple identities, which may compete with or reinforce each other. Secondly, the alienation of cultural identity creates the need for more meaningful identities as the power of non-Western societies stimulate the revitalisation of indigenous identities and culture. Thirdly, identity at any level-personal, tribal, racial, or civilization can only be defined in relation to an other as opposed to the like us. Fourthly, the sources of conflict between states and groups from different civilisations are mostly those which have always generated conflict between groups. Fifthly there is the general prevalence of conflict between States. Just as most nations are aligned with a particular civilization or grouping there are others which have difficulties aligning and finding commonalties amongst societies.

The background behind the formation of these ideologies began during the first fifty years of this century which were devoted mostly to ending colonial occupation. This was symbolised by such people as Mahatma Gandhi of India and Aung San of Burma who were rebelling against Western colonialism. Later, the Cold War was marked by protest movements with mixed ideologies lacking a clear commitment to democracy. It was during this phase that the political doctrine known as Asian values came to being. Finally, since the end of the Cold War, there has been a search for democracy in Asian societies.

When defining the Asian culture and values, it must be recognised that Asia is famous of its diversity. However to define and compartmentalise the values implies that there is an homogeneous society, when the reality is that the region has a huge diversity of languages, religions, cultures, history, political systems and intra-Asian rivalries, prejudices, hatreds, etc. The value systems that are based on Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam or even various forms of Shamanism, differ a lot from each other. Anwar Ibrahim supports this observation in the book Asian Renaissance, and agrees that Faith and religious practices of the East are very important in developing a strong Asian society;

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"It is religion rather than any other social force which makes Asia a continent of infinite diversity. Thus, the renewal of faith and the assertion of multiculturalism is a vital component of the Asian Renaissance.

S. P. Lim in his article Understanding and Distinguishing Asian Values has named main differences between "Asian" and "Western" values based on a survey conducted by David Hichock. In 14, the former Director of East Asian and Pacific Affairs of the United States Information Agency, David Hitchcock conducted a survey comparing East Asian and American values. The results found that six societal values most prominent amongst the East Asians were first, having an orderly society; second, societal harmony; third, ensuring the accountability of public officials; fourth, being open to new ideas; fifth, freedom of expression; and sixth, respect for authority. Alternatively, the six most important societal values for the Americans, a dominant Western country, sampled were first, freedom of expression; second, the rights of the individual; third, personal freedom; fourth, open debate; fifth, thinking for oneself; and sixth, the accountability of public officials. The five most important personal values stressed by Americans were co-ordinate by self-reliance, personal achievement, hard work, achieving success in life and helping others. However, the most important personal values emphasise by East Asians is respect for learning, achieving success in life, self-discipline, fulfilling obligations to others, and personal achievement.

This report indicates that the Asians polled think in terms of collective principles and not individual values. Societies are not built on the individual but on the family and community. The developing nations of East Asia believe that without development, freedom is irrelevant, and without strong state guidance, development will never come. Asian societies position social and economic rights and the right to economic development over individuals political and civil rights. It is argued that economic development will be achieved more efficiently if the leaders are authorised to restrict individuals political and civil rights for the sake of political stability.

In the international political arena however, the concept of Asian values became a defence against criticism of human rights abuses by UN human rights agencies and the international community. It was said that Asia had its own ways and was not bound by norms and standards formulated in UN conventions. The West argues that the Asian values are being used to justify the undemocratic and hypocrisy of the authority to confine the human rights.

"Western nations are fearful of a coming culture war with the booming nations of East Asia, and Asian leaders are exacerbating those fears by emphasising Asian values as an alternative to those of the West. In fact, there is no such thing as Asian values and the best dynamic for ensuring greater representation in Asia isnt a human rights campaign but Asias own appetite for capitalist entrepreneurship."

Western leaders, scholars and the media always claim that Asian authorities are ignoring human rights abuses, particularly in China. As a result of these accusations Asian countries have been keen to remind the USA and European countries of their human rights records, which include abuses in the United States recently where the 00th execution was carried out since the reinstatement of the death penalty in the 170s. Asians officials have also argued that human rights ideology is based on "Western values" and has to be recreated again in such a manner that it suits Asian belief systems as well. In fact, it had been stated that

"to say that freedom is Western or unAsian is to offend our own traditions as well as our forefathers who gave their lives in the struggle against tyranny and injustice."

Samuel P. Huntingtons The Clash of Civilizations suggests that world politics is entering a new phase. Huntington believes that the great divisions amongst humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be in the cultural form. Nation states will still remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. Huntington states

The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.

It is largely argued that Asian values were the doctrine formulated by a new Southeast Asian elite, well known among whom were General Suharto of Indonesia, Lee Kuan-yew of Singapore and Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad of Malaysia. These people claimed that strong government was essential for the modernisation of Asian economies. By implication, democracy was derogated as a path that led to inefficiency, insolvency and poverty.

After the Asian financial crisis in 17-8 some leaders in Asia haven't been that enthusiastic to defend Asian values. For Southeast Asia the 'golden age' of exponential growth, rising real incomes, and social consensus is over, at least for a while. It showed that this famous Asian way of doing business is not necessarily any superior than western market economy or their value system based on individualism.

Two perceptions exist of the power of the West in relation to other civilizations. The first is of overwhelming, triumphant, almost total Western dominance. The disintegration of the Soviet Union removed the only serious challenger to the West and as a result the world is and will be shaped by the goals, priorities, and interests of the principal Western nations, with an occasional assistance from Japan. The second depiction of the West is very different. It is of a civilization in decline, its share of world political, economic, and military power going down relative to that of other civilizations. Further, this view proposes that the West is now confronted with slow economic growth, stagnating populations, unemployment, huge government deficits, a declining work ethic, low savings rates, social disintegration, drugs, and crime.

The twenty-first century is witnessing the end of the progressive era dominated by Western ideologies and are moving into an era in which multiple and diverse civilizations will interact, compete, coexist, and accommodate each other. The perceptions of these distinct political forms influences many national and international decisions. Currently, the revival of religion occurring in many parts of the world including a cultural resurgence in Asian and Islamic countries, has been generated in greatly by the East's economic and demographic enthusiasm.

Anwar Ibrahim, Asian Renaissance (Times Books International, Singapore, 16)

Editorial Research Reports, America's Changing Role (Congressional Quarterly, Washington, 174)

John Baylis, Steve Smith, The Globalisation of World Politics (Oxford, Oxford 001)

Mahathir Mohamad, A New Deal for Asia (Pelanduk, Kuala Lumpur, 1)

Mehran Kamrava, Politics and Society in the Third World (Routledge, New York, 1)

Phillipe Aghion, Jeffery G Williamson, Growth, Inequity and Globalization (Cambridge, Cambridge, 18)

Richard J Stoll, Michael D Ward, Power in World Politics (Lynne Reinner, London, 1)

Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations Or, the West against the Rest (http//www.lander.edu/atannenbaum/Tannenbaum%0courses%0folder/POLS%010%0World%0Politics/10_huntington_clash_of_civilizations_full_text.htm)

S. P Lim, Asian Values (http//uk.geocities.com/tafk/sneeze/asian_values.htm)

Steven L Lamy, Contemporary International Issues (Lynne Reinner, London, 10)

T. B. Miller, The East-West Strategic Balance (George Allen & Unwin, Boston, 181)

Thi Lam Speech, (http//www.pacificnews.org/content/pns/16/mar/01asianvalues.html)

Trilateral Commision, East Asia and the international System (Trilateral Commision, New York, 001)

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In discussing the nature of morality there exists two major positions that an individual can take. One can argue for the existence of a universal, autonomous body of moral codes that pertains to all possible situations, one that is independent, unchangeable and timeless. One could also argue for a subjective morality, that is, a case where morality is owed to an immediate rational deliberation in the name of the collective good. Following is a discussion of both of these notions as they pertain to the work of two very influential philosophers', Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Thomas Hobbes, known for his book The Leviathan, argues for a subjective morality. Hobbes saw morality only as an incidental condition rising as the individual attempts to remove themselves from the ravenous state of nature. Locke, on the other hand, believed morality to be a universal body handed down from god and applied by an exercise of reason.

To best understand the position of Hobbes and his moral philosophy it is important that he is introduced as a political philosopher. Hobbes was interested in the development of a commonwealth, with a dominant sovereign, and its capacity to offer the individual increased power and security. Only by entering this commonwealth and subjecting oneself to the decree of the sovereign, Hobbes felt, did the need for a moral concept arise. The route to Hobbes's morality, therefore, begins with his understanding of the individual and the associated state of nature.

For Hobbes, the state of nature is the condition in which humans exist without institutions or collectively agreed upon authorities, it is selfish, violent and chaotic. The state of nature is this way, according to Hobbes, due to the innate nature of human beings. Hobbes held that humans are essentially physical machines cared only to satiate their needs; they desperately seek what they require and consider others merely as obstacles to their goals. In the state of nature Hobbes believed this innate human way ruled, and because no preconceived notions about human worth exist, morality immerges as backward and irrelevant while hostility reigns. This can be further understood in a quote from Hobbes himself, which reads "to this war of every man against every man, this also is consequent; that nothing can be unjust."

Hobbes also sought to explain the kinds of actions humans are capable of. He felt that each person was capable of two kinds of action, vital actions and animal actions. Vital actions referred to the involuntary actions of the physical body; they include elements such as the beating of the heart, the lungs facilitating oxygen exchange, and the elimination of waste. Animal actions, more importantly, describe human voluntary motion, they are believed to originate in the mind and give rise to voluntary actions. Hobbes termed this voluntary action human endeavor, of which he claimed there were two kinds, appetite and aversions. When human behavior is directed toward that which causes it, the behavior is said to be a reflection of an appetite. When human behavior involves striving to avoid that which causes it, the behavior is said to reflect an aversion. The significance of Hobbes' notion of endeavors is that appetites and aversions that are unbound represent the state of nature. That is to say, the defining feature of Hobbes' state of nature is the fact that in such a state humans live only to quench appetites and remove aversions, and furthermore, they are free to do anything in their capacity to achieve this goal. Humans are free in the sense that, as mentioned, no assumptions pre-exist. One can note the particular intensity of this notion from Hobbes' own words, which state "The passions that incline men to peace, are fear of death; desire of such things as are necessary to commobious living; and a hope by their industry to attain them."

After describing Hobbes' notions thus far, one may now turn to his concepts of the commonwealth. Hobbes felt that the highest achievement of civility came a humans agreed to enter into a collective society, or commonwealth. In a commonwealth Hobbes stated that each member agreed to give up a portion of the freedom of will they maintained in they state of nature. The condition of one individual surrendering part of his freedom is met in the commonwealth by the condition of another surrendering an equal portion of their freedom, this is met to reduce the chaos and remove one from the state of nature. For example, one agrees to the boundaries of his neighbors land, and in return his neighbor agrees to the boundaries of his land. In defining their property both men no longer have to fight constantly for the basics of survival, they now have the opportunity to produce excess, survive longer, and live happier as they are now more secure.

From this notion of the commonwealth one can now discuss Hobbes' ideas of morality. Morality for Hobbes arises in the rational decision of the human creature to escape the state of nature and enter the commonwealth. That is to say, in the commonwealth the individual assumes a series of laws or agreements, which increases their security. Breaking these laws then becomes the greatest sin as in such a case those involved are returned to the brutish state of nature. In the commonwealth the individual must adhere to two central principles, the right of nature and the law of nature. The right of nature stipulates that even in the commonwealth your unlimited in actions when your life depends on it. The law of nature has three parts. The first stipulates that you must not take your own life, and furthermore you must choose the best means to preserve it. The second stipulates that one must practice compromise and allot as much freedoms to them as they would allot to others. The third law stipulates that the individual maintain the agreements made of the commonwealth. These laws provide the boundaries of Hobbes' commonwealth; they are the lines separating society and the state of nature.

Morality, therefore, according to Hobbes involves living by these laws and thus enabling the individual to avoid the state of nature. In addition to these fundamental laws the collective group also agrees to a number governing sub laws, they give full power to a sovereign to enforce these laws, with the ultimate objective of maintaining the compromise of freedoms. With this, one sees' as the essence of Hobbes' theories subjectivity in the fact that laws are developed by the collective, for the collective.

Problems, however, exist with Hobbes' theories. Hobbes fails to account for all the capacities of humanity and as such his ideas fail to depict an accurate picture of human civilization. Hobbes' most fundamental error is his exclusion of human reason. From his exclusion of objective human reason, as something driving the search for pure knowledge, one can attack his model of the state of nature and by extension the concepts that follow from it.

By purposing that humans are driven simply by the desire to fill the void created by needs, Hobbes fails in attempting to account fully for human voluntary motion. One cannot claim that humanity in its best exercise of reason aims to merely reduce obstacles, and at the same time say they may produce excess in this negative space. Moreover, the fact that excesses do exist adds further controversy to Hobbes' theory of the productivity of the commonwealth. These excesses can be seen in the expression and development of pure, as apposed to applied knowledge. To account for these excesses one must add a concept to human nature that dissolves Hobbes notion of the state of nature, the concept that humans are active beyond the realm of practical gain. This new definition of endeavor or voluntary motion implies that the active pursuit of pure elements supercedes need satisfaction. If need satisfaction was utmost, one becomes caught in a circle, perpetually satisfying needs from which stagnation develops and no excesses grow.

From these new definitions, in the revised state of nature individuals seek to constantly improve and are never satisfied with just enough. This by extension suggests an innate value for all things, as the world and its inhabitants draw enough worth for one to desire to improve upon them. The ravenous state of nature as described by Hobbes therefore is incomplete and as such not telling of humanity.

The fact that humans are capable of diverging values further alters Hobbes notions, particularly its subjectivity. The existence of human value diversity suggests that in our active efforts to constantly improve, one is uncovering new territory and not creating it. This is implied because the error that exists between individual values, if our efforts are progressive, suggest an attempt to merge to the same answers. What one is attempting to uncover in a constant quest, therefore, is something timeless and universal, an objective not subjective law that exists beyond the individual. These kinds of efforts can be understood with a brief look at the teachings of Aristotle. Aristotle held that morality existed as a mean between excess and deficiency. That is, to live morally one should search for the middle ground, for example continence as apposed to incontinence or insensibility. Some individuals fall into incontinence, some into insensibility, yet they will always push to reach the timeless, objective mean of continence as it offers the best, most consistent life. One can then extend Hobbes' morality beyond upholding subjective creations, and claim it as part of the objective truth that individuals seek. One now values humans in as much as they value themselves. The equality in value across humans arises because equality is the mean between inequality and honor. Furthermore, equality alone allows for constant improvement as humans work with and not against one another. This co-operation is different then the agreements of Hobbes' commonwealth because humans are now attempting to improve one another not simply to stay out of each others way. Acting moral becomes an end in and of itself. Finally, according to the revisions on Hobbes' theories, the commonwealth is not a different kind of human existence but an improvement in degree only.

The second philosopher to be discussed is John Locke. Like Hobbes, Locke had developed his own political and moral theories, however, they were very much the contrary to Hobbes'. The most fundamental principle of Locke's morality is its autonomous and objective nature. Locke's morality in this sense exists as an equal with the natural development of other institutions including religion and politics. Locke's notion of the natural condition of man holds that, although there are no agreed upon institutions, humans are free to do as the chose only within the bounds of reason. This can be best understood within Locke's own words, they are "To understand political power, right, and derive it from its original, we must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions…within the bounds of the law of nature…" From god, Locke argued, we have inscribed within us all that is moral and just and we uncover this through an exercise of reason. In this light one can see that, because we come from an omnipotent maker, and that we exist under their providence and creation, some morality always persists even in the natural condition. We uncover this persisting morality in our exercise of reason, given to us by god. Locke states this in the quote "…and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will consult it…" Some of these moral precepts of Locke's natural condition of man include the notion that you cannot kill yourself, or other's unless your life depends on it as were our maker's property and about his actions. This notion also rests on the precept that were all the same and equal as individuals as our creator has made us all equally, therefore we inherently must maintain a certain degree of concern for another's well being.

Locke did maintain that laws are to be enforced, even in a state of nature, yet this chore is up to each individual in an exercise of reason. In Locke's society therefore, all power is not given to an all-powerful sovereign. Instead, an impartial judge is appointed who must answer to the people as a whole; this is to facilitate a balance between reparation and restraint. That is, in Locke's society two rights exist, that of reparation and that of restraint. Reparation allows one to punish a transgressor of others and society, while restraint ensures the punishment fits the crime. Fundamentally, what this means is that the appointed judge can forgive the offender if it is best for society. Locke also imposed several conditions on man in a society. First, he stated that no man can judge his own case of transgression for his own self love will bias him. Second, he developed an argument for capital punishment. This argument stated that any individual committing a relatively serious crime, murder for example, removes himself from gods prescribed humanity and can thus be punished as such.

From his theorizing, Locke maintained one very fundamental problem to explain. Because Locke felt that, as revealed through scripture, god gave the earth to all mankind in common he had to explain the element of private ownership. Locke explains this by suggesting that we take for ourselves for the duration of our life that which we have worked for. That is to say, Locke felt that we all have an inborn property in our own person, and therefore, by the labor of this body we work to earn possessions such as hunting and fishing. Locke did describe an exception to this rule, which is, in circumstances where resources are particularly low, the right of restraint swells. That is to say, in a case of impending starvation one may freely steal bread to feed their family. Furthermore, Locke put a restriction on how much an individual can amass or own. He held that it was wrong for any individual to take from the world more than they need, including land and food resources. If one takes more than they can use, others must go without, moreover, wasting that which god has provided and given us reason to use properly is a transgression against this providence and society.

This objective tune of morality is both prescriptively and descriptively convincing. The reason that Locke speaks of is an undeniable element of humanity, and the term reason by definition suggests the pursuit of something objective, not emotional or subjective. Furthermore, the strength of reason that Locke explains, the kind that separates humans from animals, accounts for the possibility that humans act upon the world, they don't just react. This notion of the active human is compelling as it accounts for all the successes of history, including artistic achievement and medical discoveries, while discrediting the notion of negative ambition as no excess could come from this.

Prescriptively Locke's theories are also very seductive. In purposing that we live in the name of our own preservation as well as the preservation of other's one is inspired. Living with this kind of respect for the world and the people in it, while adhering to the objective search to better respect this world suggests the opportunity maintained in a society can increase exponentially. Each individual is working toward the same goal along the same principles.

Locke's notions have also been to a certain extent shared by many influential thinkers. Some of the thinkers that share a view akin to Locke's include St Thomas Aquinas and Plato. In his doctrine of natural law Aquinas describes a similar concept of moral law, he saw it as something given to us from god that reason allows us to discover. It is not, however, the reliance of god that gives the ideas of both men the power in objectivity. More important than the belief in its roots is the adherence to reason itself, this practiced by all people must by definition must guide all view a particular circumstance equally, squashing biases and thus inequality. Of course, no human can always judge completely free of their own emotional biases. This emotional bias does not, however, have to rule humanity. If humans pursue reason objectivity will persist because in that pursuit a certain level of consistency is maintained.

Plato offers a much less theological approach to objective morality. Plato theorized about an ideological world of forms. This world maintained no direct connection to the physical world and it held in it the perfect concept of all human pursuits. Plato held that it was the human responsibility to seek to reduce ignorance of this world in order to best imitate it, which included universal concepts of morality. For both Plato and Locke, the individual must, through the exercise of reason, seek to uncover a persisting moral world. This moral world then units all people in the objective pursuit of it, and regardless of its origins humans begin to work with, and for one another.

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American dream or Nightmare

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Life, liberty and happiness are the famous words every American hears throughout their

lifetime. These words are part of America's history written in the Declaration of Independence.

America is the only country where the pursuit of happiness is actually guaranteed in writing. But

the American Dream has become the American nightmare. People today are so busy

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dreaming about what they could be or have a right to be, they lose sight of what is really

important. Seeking the dream has become a game. Achieving the dream is not a goal, but a

distant hope. Today it is the pursuit of happiness that overshadows everything. Life and liberty

are taken for granted. Americans today are constantly reminded and told how to pursue the

dream. And more often than not, it is someone else's dream. The old-fashioned idea of a simple

life with a decent house in a quiet neighborhood, with a steady job and a couple of healthy

children is no longer enough. Today, both spouses must work so they can afford bigger houses,

drive fancier cars, take better vacations and accumulate more things. Children come along later

only if financial security is more certain. Today's generation finds itself unable to duplicate or

surpass their own parents'standard of living.

In this analysis we will be discussing diffrent views on what the pursuit of happiness and the

American dream are. The American Dream can be defined with many different aspects. It is

unique to each individual, family, group, race and class. The Constitution of the United States

and The Declaration of Independence say it all. Americans have the right to live in perfect union,

domestically tranquil and without fear of war. In addition to the right to "Life, Liberty and the

Pursuit of Happiness." Since the discovery of the Americas, people from all over the world have

come to the United States in search of a better way of life. America has the third largest

population in the world ( ). Today, any person who enters or lives in the

United States is free. Free to speak their mind, practice any religion, become educated, to be

secure in homes that they own. In America you can work hard at any occupation you choose and

hopefully you will become rich. For some it can mean a well paying job, while for others it can

be the difference between life and death, and for all freedom. Freedom that we as American

citizens take for granted.

Americans define success as how much money you have. Everyone in America wants to

achieve financial success in their life in one form or another. Sometimes living in a capitalistic

society entices many to become too materialistic. For most Americans, this high status is very

difficult to achieve. Most Americans see the American dream as becoming rich young

and having the opportunity and will to do what you please with your wealth. To many

foreigners it is just to escape poverty and retain a better life. The reason behind chosing this

topic is because even though the American dream is different to all people it also always

involves one common factor, the almighty dollar.

Success is not how much money you have, or what you have, or even if you are happy with

what you have. Success is being happy with who you are. For many people social status

and fame can be their dream. Many attempt to be something they are not. Struggling to be part of

a higher class of people can lead to failure. A persons self confidence can be shattered in the

process. There are people who were born in the United States who do not realize that our

freedom and rights are wonderful privileges. Privileges that has cost a lot of blood, sweat and

tears from our immigrant ancestors who came to the United States from all areas of the world,

chasing their American dream.

The ideals of freedom and happiness that started this country are something that everyone

wants. Our history has been a roadmap for that. From the time of the Revolution until recently,

Americans found themselves better off in each generation. Achieving the American dream dates

back to the time when Christopher Columbus discovered America. Since then, there have been

deals, agreements, treaties and even laws passed to reach the dream. During most of the 18th

century, Great Britain ruled the area that was to become the United States. The colonial men

wanted to be free and independent from British rule. They were tired of the injustices imposed

upon them. On July 4th, 1776, representatives of the American Colonies wrote and ratified the

Declaration of Independence. This document ranks as one of the greatest documents in human

history, as well as the first step taken by Americans to achieve the American dream ( ).

Independence Day is celebrated every July 4th to honor its great and meaningful background. The

dream of religious freedom and economic independence was started when the fifty-six members

of the Continental Congress signed their names for all the American people. From that point on

men have strived to become rich (gold rush, bootlegging, stock market) and educated.

Although the American Dream is considered to be the link that binds society, there are

some individuals that do not posses the link. The African Americans have been struggling for

many years to obtain the piece of the American Dream, their place in America. By the middle of

the 1th century, one issue stood out in opposition to the dream that all men were created equal,

slavery. This issue was so hotly contested that the nation was divided into two. Only eighty-five

years after achieving independence, the nation fought against itself to either abolish or uphold

slavery ( ). The dream for Negroes was to be free from slavery. To own land, marry and

have a family living within the same home, to eat in public areas and use a public restroom. To

have the same rights as any White man. In 1865, they won the fight to be free but were still not

considered equal. In 1870, Black Americans won the right to vote, but their fight to be equal was

far from over( ). From then to the 150's they then fought for desegregation, the right

for proper schooling. They won equal rights in 164. Today, there are still African-Americans

that feel they are being oppressed and treated unequal.

Losing sight of the dream and what it meant, the four-year Civil War caused more casualties

than all wars combined. When the war was finally over, America started on a period of great

economic growth. As great wealth was accumulated by the cattle barons, the railroad companies

and the industrial giants, most Americans did not succeed to anywhere near the same degree.

American society was split into those with money and those without. The richest few achieved

the dream of freedom, wealth and happiness, but left the vast majority in an almost hopeless

state. For most, the hopes of reaching the American dream would remain just that, a dream.

During the 10's, the American dream was based purely upon materialistic things. For

women in the late 1800's to the early 100's the dream was to have the right to vote and to be

treated equal to men. In order to vote you had to be a landowner, which few women were. In

addition, women were not considered to have the ability to reason as well as men, therefore they

could not vote. Eventually, women proved they could reason as well as men and won the right to

vote in 10. The 1th Amendment to the Constitution was a long, hard and treacherous fight for

the key members of the movement, but they worked hard and never gave up.

As the 0th century rolled along, so did the economy for a chosen few. But that all came

toppling down in October of 1 with the stock market crash. Many of the richest people,

banks, factories and stores lost millions of dollars and left Americans jobless. The crash started

the Great Depression. This was a worldwide business slump of the 10s. The Depression

ranked as the worst and longest period of high unemployment and business activity in modern

times ( ). The dream needed help as most Americans depended on the government and

charity to provide them with food and jobs. Many of the relief programs not only helped in the

short term, but also laid the groundwork for the economic revival to come. The last half of the

0th century saw economic development, a fall in unemployment and accumulation of wealth by

many, rather than the few. But with this prosperity came a desire to gather even more wealth and

riches and leads us to the problem with the American dream today.

The American Dream of having a comfortable debt free life has somehow deteriorated over

the years. It used to be about working hard, having a good honest job, and being loyal to the

occupation. Now those things are not as important to individuals in America today. What has

happened to the "American Dream"? Why doesn't it continue being the same? There are many

reasons for these downfalls. One of the major problems is the economic inequality. The

corporations have set their own standards. This began in the 70's when the power started shifting

to the big corporations. They began to donate money, making their voice become politically

heard. This earned them the title "Big Campaign Contributors", decreasing the average persons

national voice (Domhoff, G. William, Who Rules America?). But, that didn't suffice their greed.

The Corporations then continued taking power by having political figures support them control

over labor unions. As a result, rule changes began to be made and accepted. That means that for

the labor unions, their voice was beginning to be less heard. A good example is the health

insurance companies blocking the reform for a non-profit universal health care system. The

organization of taxes also contributed to the rule changes. There were big tax cuts for the

corporations and wealthy, while tax raises for the hard working middle-class families.

The model of two kids, a dog and a house in the suburbs may not be reachable for many

Americans, but it can also be looked down upon by many that are pushed and driven to surpass

it. What makes it sad is that while they are attempting to acquire even more wealth, status and

power, they can lose sight of their marriage and their children. You often read of highly

successful businessmen who state that they deserve their success because they work fifteen to

twenty hours a day, six or seven days a week. What time does that leave for anything else?

The basis of this report, which is the pursuit of happiness, and mainly the American Dream,

has always been present in the lives of all living things. America is the land of opportunity, the

country that beckons to so many people, calling to them with the promise of freedom to live

their lives as they see fit. As our National Anthem states, the United States is "the land of the

free and the home of the brave." The motto of the United States, E Pluribus Unum, means "from

many, one." The United States has many different cultures coming together to form a unified

whole. But the most important aspect of America is freedom. In a very general sense, America

gives people the opportunity to live their lives the way they want to. In America, you can literally

be anything you want to be. It won't be handed to you, but with a little bit of hard work and effort,

your dreams can come true. America is a place where you can voice your opinions without

having to live in constant fear of being punished for your beliefs. You may not be completely

accepted, but at least you have the chance to stand up for your beliefs. In America, you can truly

be the person you want to be.

In conclusion, The downfall of the American Dream has occurred for many reasons.

Economic inequality, corporate deceive, and class difference are just a few. We as people and

part of American society must look in ourselves and not contribute to what these big

corporations and political figures are taking part of in order to pick up the American dream and

form a more perfect union. While not entirely perfect, America has a lot going for it. There is no

other place in this world where you can find the same opportunities offered in America. America

is truly "the land of the free and the home of the brave." America is the country where dreams

can come true. Will it still be good for Americans to dream, or will the nightmare overcome us?

(Declaration of Independence)

(National Anthem)

(Constitution of The United States)

(Domhoff, G. William, Who Rules America? )

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Table of Contents:

Presenting Winamp3

Some features to try out

About Winamp3

How to start Winamp3

Notes

Some known issues

Presenting Winamp3

More than 3 years in the making, Winamp3 is the culmination of Nullsoft's

attempt to create a whole new type of software: the ultimately skinnable

program, also known as the highly metamorphic application. We rewrote everything

from scratch while doing our very best to preserve and enhance those

subtle qualities of Winamp that make you (and us) love it so much. While doing

that we even managed to create a software platform known as Wasabi.

Welcome to the next generation: Winamp3.

Some features to try out:

- The main system menu is available to you, in any skin, with a right click

on almost any part of the player. It is also available if you click on the

little waveform icon to the left of the + menu.

- Grab the little resizer control in the lower right and stretch your Winamp3!

Use the + button to make it transparent (on win2k and xp)

- Control-P is a convenient shortcut to get to the Preferences window.

- Click the eject button to pick some music files on your hard drive and

play them.

- Turn on the crossfader. (The button just to the right of the eject

button).

- Click on the little Winamp logo (the flashing lightning bolt icon in the

lower right of the main player piece) to bring up the Thinger, if it isn't

already displaying. The Thinger allows you to open and close component

windows (like the playlist editor, or the skin switcher, or other components

you might install) and otherwise interact with the components you have

installed. If you right click on this logo you get a shortcut menu to

toggle each window.

- The playlist editor supports multiple playlists and multiple editors now.

Try hitting Control-N to get a new playlist editor.

- If you miss the J key from winamp 2.x, try hitting F3 in the playlist editor.

- The media library, availble both through the Thinger and through the "ML"

button, can sort and display your music collection if it has been tagged

with ID3 information. At first, your database of music is empty. It grows

as you add new files to your playlist or when you add more files to it via

the "Add to Library" button in the lower left. It takes a little while

to read all the info from the files after you add them, but once it's done

you can try clicking on the available queries to see what it's found.

Once you find some music, you can drag and drop it into the playlist editor.

You can also drag-and-drop files from Windows Explorer windows directly

onto the playlist editor or the main player piece.

- All windows naturally "dock" to each other when they get near. You can undock

any docked window (including the main player) by holding down either SHIFT

key while dragging it.

- If you hold down the CONTROL and ALT keys while moving a window, every

window will move along with it.

- There's lots more, so explore!

About Winamp3

What is Winamp3? Why Winamp3? Winamp3 is more than an excuse to have "mp3"

built right into our product name. Winamp3 is our attempt to create a

brand new methodology of complete customizability of the media playback

experience via a system of component programming (which adds new functionality

to the program) and a brand-new skinning system (to present the features of

the program to you.) Collectively, this new technology platform is called

Wasabi.

Our component system gives developers unprecedented access to the program by

encouraging them to build directly upon our coding platform (named Wasabi) and

add brand-new functionality to the entire system. We provide an SDK (downloaded

separately) packed with working C++ code taken directly from our own components

and Winamp3 itself so developers can immediately start creating great new

components on top of our code.

New functionality is packaged in the form of "components". They are similar

in idea to general-purpose plugins, except Wasabi components can actually

leverage each others' features instead of only using the main Winamp services.

Components can add a new window into the system, or just provide a new type

of service to the system (like decoding a different type of media file, or

displaying a brand-new type of visualization). Winamp3 comes packaged with

some standard components, such as the playlist editor and skin switcher.

Also, we have completely revamped the skinning system. In fact, we have

revamped the entire idea of a skinning system. Winamp3 goes way beyond the

idea of skins that are merely free-form. Our skins are both free-form

and fully scriptable. Skinners (and now, scripters) can invoke nearly any

UI behavior they desire in their skin, from changing a bitmap or vis mode

to dynamically blending and rendering brand new interfaces on the fly.

Another important reason for Winamp3 is portability. Wasabi currently runs on

the win32 platform (Win95/98/NT/ME/2k/XP/etc). We are progressing nicely on a

Linux version as well, and we have plans for more operating

systems/environments to receive support in the future. This means that

components built on Wasabi will be easily recompilable for other OSes and

architectures, and skins won't need to be modified at all to be

totally portable.

How to start Winamp3:

(as originally written for the internal alphas)

(on a French keyboard)

(by a drunken Brennan)

(with my left pinky)

(blindfolded)

Start Winamp3 via whatever method you prefer. That would mean either clicking

the quickstart icon, the desktop icon, or by projecting your awesome mutant

powers onto a nearby human and exploding their brain in such a way as to cause

variations in the sunspot cycle which causes in turn a freakish burst of

neutrinos to blast forth from the sun's molten innards (the advanced student can

use a nearby star and a buttload of patience) flipping a bit in your computers

Instruction Pointer (usually referred to as IP except on the SPARC platform

which uses the notation PC, for Program Counter) causing it to jump to the

part of Windows that is secretly programmed in at the last second that causes

it to feel remorse for sucking so damned bad and always crashing and deleting

all your work right when you were JUST ABOUT to hit Save, no really you were,

and while wallowing in this black pit of despair and self-loathing it hits it,

hey, I know what would make the world a better place, if I was running

Winamp 3.0, and it does.

Notes

- About the HTTP reader:

The proxy string can be either: "user:password@host:port", "user@host:port" or "host:port"

If "port" is not specified, 80 is assumed.

- About the video support:

When in fullscreen, you can use any Winamp3 key to control the playback and

also use the mouse wheel to control volume.

Doubleclick on the fullscreen window or press "ESC" to go back to normal mode.

- About CD playback:

The CD reader will first try to digitally extract the tracks, so it can

provide you with gapless and crossfadable output along with visualisation.

The digital extraction relies on an ASPI manager being installed on your

computer. It'll also try to use the internal ASPI NT manager, but it might

not work on all CD drives. If digital extraction doesn't work properly, try

installing an ASPI manager. Check out the following page for detailed

instructions:

http://www.windac.de/eng/sup02.shtml

If ASPI is not found, the WA3 CD playback component will then fallback

into a MCI type CD playback (like Winamp 2 does).

Some known issues

- if no file is valid in a playlist, hitting play enters an endless loop

Found one we missed? Go to http://bugzilla.nullsoft.com:3430/ and help us

out by reporting it. Or email to aus@winamp.com. Or let us know your thoughts

in our forums at http://forums.winamp.com/

Sincerely,

Brennan Underwood

Francis Gastellu

Christophe Thibault

Justin Frankel

Steve Gedikian

Mig Gerard

and the whole Nullsoft team^H^H^H^Hsemi-digested hunks of meat

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Nobody believes more fervently in the American Dream than Willy, yet the dream has somehow eluded him. Now he is sixty years old, a beaten and discouraged traveling salesman, with nothing to show for a lifetime of hard work but a small house on a crowded street where grass doesnt grow anymore and apartment houses block his view.

Rustling about upstairs are Willys grown sons, Happy and Biff, home for a visit. Their presence in the house causes Willy to reminisce on happier times; times when their growing strength and athletic feats - especially Biffs - were a source of pride and joy to him; times when it seemed certain that his kids would go out and conquer the world. In this heightened and reflective state Willy speaks aloud to his boys as if the two youngsters he fondly remembers from the past had materialized in the room.

WILLY Thats just what I mean. Bernard [the son of Willys friend] can get the best marks in school, yunderstand, but when he gets out in the business world, yunderstand, you are going to be five times ahead of him. Thats why I thank Almighty God youre both built like Adonises. Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want.

Custom Essays on Compare and Contrast

Willys philosophy is sound and fool-proof, he feels, but, unaccountably, it hasnt worked for him, nor for his favorite son, Biff. Ever since graduation from high school when he inexplicably ignored a prestigious scholarship offer to play football for the University of Virginia, Biff had acted like a restless vagabond, moving from one place and one job to another, unable to get a hold on life. He had also had a run-in with the police stealing, they said.

Willy paces the kitchen floor and strolls around the yard, trying to understand - how could a boy with such promise have gone so wrong? However, the father is never quite able to admit any responsibility for Biffs problems. I never told him anything but decent things, he rationalizes.

During the boys visit, Willy can not help but argue with Biff. His sons dreams are simply unacceptable. Biffs latest scheme is to own a ranch somewhere in the West. He figures that Bill Oliver, a man he used to work for, will loan him the ten thousand dollars to buy it.

Later that evening, Biff and Happy bound down the stairs to talk with their mother, Linda. Willy comes in from the garden just in time to hear Biff mention his plans to go see Oliver He always said hed stake me. Id like to go into business, so maybe I can take him up on it. Then, seeing Willy, and anxious to please his father, Biff stammers on, emphasizing that it is a business he wants, not necessarily a ranch.

Retiring to bed that night, Willy is convinced that Biff is off to a new start. God Almighty, hell be great yet, he says to Linda. A star that magnificent can never really fade away!

When Willy awakes the next morning, Biff and Happy are gone - Happy to his job, Biff to speak with Bill Oliver. Willy, still feeling the optimism of the ni ht before, is now determined to also make his own life better. First thing hell do is go to New York to tell his boss that he wants to be taken off the road; lifes too short to be away from home all the time. He and his wifes future promises to be happy. Its changing, she tells him excitedly. Willy, I feel it changing!

But, once again, things dont work out the way Willy plans. His boss, Howard - who had been named by young Willy himself after Will had just started to work for Howards father - is not interested in the salesmans problems. When Willy asks that his traveling be cut down, Howard summarily fires him. Broken, Willy stops to see his old neighbor-buddy Charley in his office. But Willy has always been jealous of Charley; and his friend isnt much comfort to him now.

CHARLEY-. Howard fired you?

WILLY That snotnose. Imagine that. I named him. I named him Howard.

CHARLEY Willy, whenre you gonnarealize that them things dont mean anything? You named him Howard, but you cant sell that. The only thing you got in this world is what you can sell. And the funny thing is is that youre a salesman, and you dont know that.

Near emotional collapse, Willy leaves and drives to Franks Chop House, where Biff and Happy are to meet him.

Earlier, Biff, in trying to see Bill Oliver, had waited and waited in the reception area, but finally gave up late in the afternoon. However, before leaving, out of spite he had stolen Olivers fountain pen. But through this experience Biff discovered something deep and previously hidden about himself, and he is anxious to communicate this new-found understanding to his father. But Willy isnt interested in hearing what Biff has learned I was fired, and Im looking for a little good news to tell your mother, because the woman has waited and the woman has suffered. Biff starts, then stops, never really able to get the truth out.

Soon, Bill and Happy leave the restaurant, arm-in-arm with two girls Happy had managed to pick up. But Willy remains at the Chop House. There on the dirty floor of the mens room, he relives in his mind a sordid sexual affair from years ago. Biff had inadvertently stumbled onto the affair shortly after his graduation from high school - just before he was to begin college, and football ...

When the young men arrive home that evening, they are greeted by their mother. She says that Willy has been puttering in the yard since he got home, talking to himself - and to Ben, his brother, who has been dead now for nine months. Biff informs his mom that he will be leaving the next day and probably wont be coming back, then walks outside to say goodbye to his father. By and by their father-and-son talk turns into an argument. Biff has already tried once to tell Willy what he had learned that day; now he is determined to make him hear.

WILLY Then hang yourself! For spite, hang yourself!

BIFF No! Nobodys hanging himself, Willy! I ran down eleven flights with a pen in my hand today. And suddenly I stopped .... I stopped in the middle of that building and I saw - the sky. I saw the things that I love in this world. The work and the food and time to sit and smoke. And I looked at the pen and said to myself, what the hell am I grabbing this for? Why am I trying to become what I dont want to be? What am I doing in an office, making a contemptuous, begging fool of myself, when all I want is out there, waiting for me the minute I say I know who I am! Why cant I say that, Willy?

WILLY. The door of your life is wide open! BIFF Pop! Im a dime a dozen, and so are you!

WILLY I am not a dime a dozen! I am Willy Loman, and you are Biff Loman! BIFF I am not a leader of men, Willy, and neither are you. You were never anything but a hard-working drummer who landed in the ash can like all the rest of them! Im one dollar an hour, Willy! I tried seven states and couldnt raise it. A buck an hour! Do you gather my meaning? Im not bringing home any prizes any more, and youre going to stop waiting for me to bring them home!

Still, Willy cant - wont - grasp what Biff is saying. The argument escalates. But just as it looks as though Biff is ready to haul off and strike Willy, he falls into his arms, weeping. Deeply moved, as Biff stumbles up the stairs to his bedroom, Willy prophesies, That boy - that boy is going to be magnificent!

That night Willy remains alone in the kitchen. Everyone else has gone upstairs. He drifts in and out of the past, talking to himself and to his brother Ben, once a successful land developer, who once had gone into the jungle and come out rich. Linda is worried, and urges her exhausted husband to come to bed. But Willy puts her off. Hes still speaking with Ben, his illusory ideal of complete, success. Willy has a proposition to make. Can you imagine that magnificence [Biff] with twenty-thousand dollars in his pocket? he mutters across the table. Twenty-thousand dollars is the amount of the benefit in Willys life insurance policy.

Suddenly, Linda hears the car motor turn over. Willy guns the engine, the car squeals off down the street - then comes the sound of grinding steel and shattering glass.

Commentary

Death of a Salesman is perhaps the greatest and most significant American play of the 0th century. In many ways, it penetrates to the heart of the American experience, to the dark side of the capitalistic ideal. It is also a sensitive, heart-rending drama.

Millers play is hard to classify. Some may label it a tragedy, and Willy Loman a tragic hero. But is he? Typically, heroes make the journey from darkness into light, from ignorance to understanding; but Willy never accepts the truth of what is going on in his or his familys life. He begins to catch a glimpse of the joy life can offer, and moves to take advantage of the time he has left, but his firing sends him into a tailspin. His delusions persist till the end, when he manages to misconstrue both his own motives and his sons aspirations, even in the act of suicide.

Early in the play, Willy reminisces on a fellow salesman who was highly successful and well-liked. When this man died, people from all over came to pay their respects. However, as the epitome of a shattered dream, Willy Loman dies a forgotten failure - and not one of his associates attends his funeral.

Albert Chinualumogu Achebe was born on November 16, 10, in Ogidi, a large village in Nigeria. Although he was the child of a Protestant missionary and received his early education in English, his upbringing was multicultural, as the inhabitants of Ogidi still lived according to many aspects of traditional Igbo (formerly written as Ibo) culture. Achebe attended the Government College in Umuahia from 144 to 147. He graduated from University College, Ibadan, in 15. While he was in college, Achebe studied history and theology. He also developed his interest in indigenous Nigerian cultures, and he rejected his Christian name, Albert, for his indigenous one, Chinua.

In the 150s, Achebe was one of the founders of a Nigerian literary movement that drew upon the traditional oral culture of its indigenous peoples. In 15, he published Things Fall Apart as a response to novels, such as Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness, that treat Africa as a primordial and cultureless foil for Europe. Tired of reading white mens accounts of how primitive, socially backward, and, most important, language-less native Africans were, Achebe sought to convey a fuller understanding of one African culture and, in so doing, give voice to an underrepresented and exploited colonial subject.

Things Fall Apart is set in the 180s and portrays the clash between Nigerias white colonial government and the traditional culture of the indigenous Igbo people. Achebes novel shatters the stereotypical European portraits of native Africans. He is careful to portray the complex, advanced social institutions and artistic traditions of Igbo culture prior to its contact with Europeans. Yet he is just as careful not to stereotype the Europeans; he offers varying depictions of the white man, such as the mostly benevolent Mr. Brown, the zealous Reverend Smith, and the ruthlessly calculating District Commissioner.

Achebes education in English and exposure to European customs have allowed him to capture both the European and the African perspectives on colonial expansion, religion, race, and culture. His decision to write Things Fall Apart in English is an important one. Achebe wanted this novel to respond to earlier colonial accounts of Africa; his choice of language was thus political. Unlike some later African authors who chose to revitalize native languages as a form of resistance to colonial culture, Achebe wanted to achieve cultural revitalization within and through English. Nevertheless, he manages to capture the rhythm of the Igbo language and he integrates Igbo vocabulary into the narrative.

Achebe has become renowned throughout the world as a father of modern African literature, essayist, and professor of English literature at Bard College in New York. But Achebes achievements are most concretely reflected by his prominence in Nigerias academic culture and in its literary and political institutions. He worked for the Nigerian Broadcasting Company for over a decade and later became an English professor at the University of Nigeria. He has also been quite influential in the publication of new Nigerian writers. In 167, he co-founded a publishing company with a Nigerian poet named Christopher Okigbo and in 171, he began editing Okike, a respected journal of Nigerian writing. In 184, he founded Uwa ndi Igbo, a bilingual magazine containing a great deal of information about Igbo culture. He has been active in Nigerian politics since the 160s, and many of his novels address the post-colonial social and political problems that Nigeria still faces.

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Dream Interpretation

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Dream interpretation is used by many to help better understand the thoughts and feelings of the unconscious as well as the conscious and the aspects of repression. However, it is a field of psychology not highly regarded in western societies as an extremely important aspect of psychoanalysis or the entire field itself. Dream interpretation first entered into psychology with Freud's masterpiece The Interpretation of Dreams in 18. The book received prompt, respectful, and widespread attention and signified the immergence of a new aspect of psychology. Another character who contributed enormously to this field was Carl G. Jung, he and Freud are the two who are widely characterized as the major contributors to the study of dreams

When Freud was writing his controversial book he believed dreams were infrequent, long-prepared clusters of images that went off like fireworks during sleep, fueled by repressed wishes from early childhood. Today, the conventional view is that dreams are mental experiences taking place during REM sleep which include vivid visual imagery, are often vary bizarre and seem vary real to the dreamer. This view is coming into question due to decades of research on the contents of dreams. These studies have shown dreams to be less bizarre than previously thought and that dreams are not the exclusive property of REM sleep. Studies of dreams in non-REM sleep have shown them to be less vivid and story like than REM dreams. And recent work in awareness suggests that dreamers are more aware that they are dreaming than previously believed. Therefore, since Freud's introduction of dream interpretation into psychology it has undergone revisions through evolution of the subject and the concept of dreaming continues to go through changes.

Sigmund Freud was the "father" of psychoanalysis. He attempted to describe the mind as a system of nerve cells that oversaw all mental activity by storing and discharging energy. He thought the source of this energy was sexualtoday it would be identified as sex hormoneswhich cause sexual tension and fuel the nervous system. Thus, he believed unconscious sexual wishes were the primary motivating force for dreams. While writing his book, The Interpretation of Dreams Freud realized he was writing the first psychoanalytical work in history.

According to Freud, dreams and delusions come from what has been repressed. Dreams disguise infantile wishes as to evade our censorious conscience and be fulfilled pointlessly in fantasy. In attempting to understand dreams we encounter a façade, the "manifest content" which is the verbal translation of the dream by the dreamer that is itself a disguise. The dreamer is either unable or unwilling to disclose the true facts of the dream and the process of concealment uses any materials at hand to build the façade. The four major sources of material include bodily sensations during sleep, "day residue", childhood memories and universal human experiences.

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Dream interpretation is the study of repressed feelings and wishes mostly from childhood. When a child is very young they do not have the capability to express themselves very well in words. They carry feelings inside and sometimes do not know what to do with them. So, there are two paths the child can take. Either the child finds and outlet to relieve and deal with what they are feeling inside, or they repress it. If the child is able to find an outlet and start a flow of thoughts and feelings, than that is obviously a lot healthier for the child. It allows them to open themselves and bring what is in the darkness out to light, so to speak. However, if the child is unable to create an outlet for whatever reason, then this creates a build up over time and the child starts to repress their feelings, thoughts, wishes or emotions.

Repression throughout early childhood causes a personal trend in the child's behavior. It allows them to experience repression as a way of dealing with things as opposed to expression, when in fact repression does not deal with anything, it only puts it aside. This is not good for any child and is most likely inadvertently taught by the parents. It is a backwards way of thinking that will hold a child back from growing up. Once the child learns unknowingly how to repress or hold back their "wishes" it can become a habit and seem like the right thing to do. As the child grows older and does not learn to deal with things, it can become a problem. However, most people find some way of expressing themselves and only experience mild repression if any at all. Anyway, these repressed "wishes" are not gone totally from consciousness, only lost somewhere within the subconscious. This is where dreams come into play.

According to Freud, dreams are a person's subconscious way of trying to deal with those unexpressed, unfulfilled, unachieved ideas, wishes or thoughts. So when a person goes to sleep and the subconscious is active these issues will try to express themselves as feelings, images or scenes. This is a way to bring these things to the surface of consciousness. However, it is still up to the person to figure out what the dream meant or was about in order to deal with it and move on. This is how dream interpretation can be helpful.

Most of the time when dealing with deep repression, when a dream is experienced and remembered the person cannot relate it to any particular event in their past or present. And there is no telling of what time period from which the dream came or if the dream was even self-centered. This is an example of Freud's theory of "Manifest Content". The idea the dream actually related to is so distorted that the dreamer cannot see it for what it is and so they begin piecing together what they can and filling in the rest. Thus, "Manifest Content" a distortion of reality born through repression and manifested through dreams. So, in order to deal with repressed "wishes" through the aid of dreams we have to rely on a person's ability to find what is true in themselves possibly with the help of others.

Not all dreams carry as much weight as in this scenario. Dreams which take place in non-REM sleep are less dramatic, lighter and overall much less vivid. These dreams involve lighter aspects of thought such as a previous day or week's events, this is called "day residue". This can be a way of seeing events or situations from a different point of view. Or maybe it is simply light thoughts passing through consciousness during the night. Either way, non-REM dreams have been proven to be less dramatic than REM dreams and do not delve as deep into consciousness.

Freud believed unconscious sexual wishes were the primary motivating force for dreams. He wrote that the source of mental energy is sexual. A build up of sex hormones causes tension in the nervous system. Too much of a build up would result in anxiety symptoms and too little nervous exhaustion. So, this tension searches for a way out, through dreams.

In modern psychology there are three main sources of western philosophy on how dreams are explained. First, there is the Bible, which contains stories about dreams as the word of God and false gods and so on. Second, we have the philosophy of Aristotle, who was the great Greek philosopher of 84- B.C. And third, the longest and most detailed of the three is The Oneirocriticon (Interpretation of Dreams) of Artemidorus of Daldis who lived in the second century A.D.

The Bible is filled with reports of dreams, interpretations and thoughts on the nature and functions of dreams. The Bible presents dreams as the primary vehicle in which God communicates with men and women. One of the messages depicted is God's ominous presence and importance in the life of the dreamer. Also, the dreams in the Bible emanate messages of reassurance, guidance and counsel to the dreamers. Throughout this book there are tales of prophesy and false prophesy through dreams, while other dreams are dismissed as vain illusions.

The philosopher Aristotle analyzed dreams in two short treatises, On Dreams and On Prophesying by Dreams. In On Dreams Aristotle states that during our dreaming experiences the normal functioning of our faculties of sense perception and intellect cease and our thoughts are governed mainly by emotion. During our daily lives we experience many external objects of stimulus, and when we sleep the external objects perceived leave our range of senses. However, there are still impressions from these objects within us and these impressions themselves become objects of perception. Aristotle warns of being mislead by dreams because of the role emotion plays in them.

In On Prophesying by Dreams Aristotle evaluates claims of divine revelations foretelling the future through dreams. He is generally skeptical of these claims because he says if God were the source of them, why would he send them to the average individual, assuming he is referring to all dreams and not just the ones that could be considered prophetic. In any case, he goes on to say allegedly prophetic dreams can be regarded in three ways. They may be causes, tokens or coincidences. Just as daily events can influence our dreams, it must be said that dreams can have influences on our waking lives too. He says that dreams may also be tokens of events to come in the future. Such as the beginning symptoms of illness, unrecognizable during our daily scheme which are detected in the quiet of unconsciousness. Though giving recognition to dreams as causes of events and prophetic visions, Aristotle believes most dreams, thought to be prophetic are actually mere coincidences. The occurrence of dreaming about an event and then actually experiencing or seeing it happen is not all the uncommon depending on the complexity of the event, especially today with the advancement of communication all over the world. Aristotle says that if we are able to learn how to recognize and account for the distortion in dreams due to emotion then we might actually be able to learn something of value from our own dreams.

The third book of the foundation of western thought on dream interpretation is the Oneirocriticon of Artemidorus. This is the most detailed and sophisticated text on dream interpretation to survive from ancient times. Artemidorus was a well-read man who lived in early A.D. and acquired his knowledge from any texts he could find on dream interpretation and through conversation with the much-despised diviners of his time. Artemidorus makes the distinction between enhypnion and oneiros. Enhypnion indicates a present state of affairs, as in hungry people dreaming about food or a crippled person dreaming of walking, while the latter goes beyond the present to focus on the prediction of future events. He also draws a distinction between theorematic and allegorical dreams. Theorematic dreams are very direct and precise with the images presented and its meaning. For example, a dream about witnessing a bank robbery and the very next day the actual event takes place in perfect detail as compared to the dream. On the other hand, allegorical dreams involve indirect imagery of events to predict the future. Such as, a dream of returning home from Jamaica could indicate the person actually returning home from a foreign land. In the Oneirocriticon, Artemidorus discusses many types of dreams and their interpretations. Some modern psychologists have accused him of outlining an exact format of dream images assigned to a particular meaning without consideration of the individual. However, he has written that an accurate dream interpretation must rely on a detailed knowledge of the dreamer's life, for it is possible indeed that two people have the exact same dream with two completely different meanings.

The interpretation of dreams is a considerably vast aspect of psychology. There are many individuals who have studied, written about and devoted their lives to the subject. Some of them I have mentioned here and others I did not have the time or space to include. One of importance is C.G. Jung, who was a student and close friend of Sigmund Freud before they eventually parted ways in a bitter falling out in 114. After this Jung receeded from the scientific world for four years into a world of his own dreams and consciousness. With his emergence out of his own reclusion he proceeded to write Two Essays on Analytical Psychology and his final work Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Sigmund Freud was the "father of psychoanalysis" who along with Jung most people would agree were the most influential people in the interpretation of dreams and the growth and development of the subject. Today, some of the traditional ideas are undergoing changes due to recent work in consciousness awareness and the study of dreams in non-REM sleep, thus like everything else this subject of dream interpretation is and continually will be going through changes through evolution.

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Was the Renaissance over glorified?

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The elimination of at least half of all Europeans was a tragic event, but the Black Death brought about one of the greatest eras of all time the Renaissance. It was an improvement from the state of the Middle Ages which was often called the "Dark Ages" and it was by no means an over glorified period of time. The Renaissance, meaning 'rebirth' originated in Northern Italy and that's where the majority of the changes took place. There was a decline of the feudal system during this time and individualism began to thrive. With the mind developing, education became much more vital in society than it previously had been. The educated population that began to grow found new means of trade and expanded their territory. Careers such as banking and merchandizing became vital to improve the state of the economy. With the newfound wealth that was created by these occupations, many people invested into culture in a significant way. Numerous changes were made to Europe during the Renaissance. Not all the individuals benefited from these changes but over all the state of society became better off with their new mode of thought, especially compared to the previous state it was in during the Middle Ages. The beneficial changes that took place were exceptional and advantageous to help set up modern western civilisation.

After the devastation of the Black Death, Italy's ideal location along the Mediterranean Sea opened up opportunities for trade. As a result, Italy began to see an economic rise take place, which gradually spread all over Europe. Members of the middle class became capitalist entrepreneurs. Others became merchants who indirectly helped to boost the economy by learning the art of trade. Also banking became a popular profession for the educated. These people became to be known as the 'bourgeois'. It was only the wealth that inspired the business people to come forth and succeed as they did, but in doing so they indirectly helped the destruction of the feudal system because the individual in general played much more of a role in society. The riches they had acquired through their work led them to retain a more substantial portion of the wealth then the middle class previously had. The bourgeois also gained political strength due to their work as they were keeping the economy alive, so they should have had a say on how the country was operated. Throughout the Renaissance more and more members of the bourgeois began to emerge into society. As they did, the nobility resented them more as they became less important. It was a time when "a servant may easily become a king" (Aeneas Sylvius) if they had the ability to. Such opportunities mainly arose from the business world. The people who took the role in the careers of merchants had to be educated and that can be seen with only 1 percent of them being illiterate (Manchester, 6) because it became to be a very complex occupation. Many transactions took place in their daily routine. There was money owed to them, trade took place on a regular basis, money was owed to banks and yet they still had to take care of and keep their inventory intact. The role of the banker was mainly as a creditor to kings and merchants, as well as financing wars and exploration (Thompson, ed., 1). They also speculated on currency rates, which is another factor why trade expanded beyond their territory. A Franciscan monk named Fra Luca Pacioli came up with the idea of double entry bookkeeping, which helped the merchants to keep a much more efficient record of their finances (deSantis, web page). This set up the basics for a simple accounting system. It wasn't that the idea of accounting that was new, but before hand all transactions used to be kept track of in dairies and other little notebooks. Roman numerals were used, which made it much more complex. The new system allowed money to be allocated easily to people i.e. whoever owed or needed to collect money. However during the Renaissance, with the vast amount of trade that took place the continuous flow of money was non-stop, so a control over money had to take form. The banks helped to do this. This is how the Medici's created their abundance of wealth. Families came together throughout Italy lived close to each other each other so they were able to support one another for protection, increased security and so they could assist each other with business. Though the feudal system embarked on a severe dent in its structure, a lot of the wealth and power moved from the nobility to these economically strong families. The Medici's were by far the strongest of the families, which came together in Italy. Their influence they had in and outside of the business world was phenomenal. It was Giovanni di Bicci de Medici who was the first of the Medici's who entered the banking industry in a significant way, and his son Cosimo who took over the family business in 14 became the most powerful Medici (Mee, ). He had the wealth and more than enough power to be a king. The family contributed to the banking industry in a distinguishable way. The simple economy which in the Middle Ages was mainly agriculturally based and relied heavily upon the labour of the artisans and peasants had transformed into a much more developed system in the Renaissance which opened up new careers and opportunities for the average middle class. As more and more wealth came to Italy, merchants found more efficient ways to operate their activities and constructive ways to spend their money.

Once the accumulating profits started to come in to Italy through business and trade, Italy invested largely in to culture. Many people spent their wealth on the arts such as painting and sculpting. This is a time when the works of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo became very popular and expensive. The artists were educated through means of apprenticeships. They were no longer just mere common folk as they were in the Middle Ages but became to be appreciated for their talents. Their knowledge wasn't just limited to the painting, but many of these artists were, what became known as 'Renaissance Men', who sought to take interest in other subjects. They developed their artistic technique and it improved immensely to the paintings of the Middle Ages. The art of the Renaissance had a lot more dimension and depth than then. It wasn't just about pretty pictures but pictures were used to tell stories, spread ideas and solve solutions. Michelangelo was astounding when it came to art. He specialized and had a keen interest in sculpting. His David saw the beauty of the human form and how it was naturally. He thought, A man paints with his brains and not with his hands. He used his intellect to improve his technique. His knowledge in anatomy specifically the network of muscles helped him to perfect his paintings (Rizzatti, 1). In a matter of decades some pieces of artwork rose to the astonishing price of ,000 florins per painting and in which earlier years it would have gone for as little as 5 florins (Mee, 87). The art, which was mainly based upon religious themes, also had a significant influence on the literature that was around at the time. Once these patrons of the arts began to emerge, Italy was turned in to one of the most beautiful countries of its time and it still is today. The rest of Europe saw this beauty that flourished among Italy very positively and the same change took place in other countries.

With so many changes and developments taking place, the importance of education was seen. People realised how vital it was to educate themselves, and find out more about the past so they were able to make themselves a better future. A group of people known as humanists attempted to revive the antiquity and classical thought of ancient Rome, as this was a time where Italy's status on a global scale was very high. As a result, they saw the need to seek knowledge to develop their mind, which would allow them to evaluate themselves and the society around them. They were very linguistic, interested in the ancient languages such as Greek and Latin. As well as the Humanists, the Renaissance Men were key figures in the education reform. They were also deeply involved with seeking knowledge and were always striving to learn something new. In a sense, these men were extreme humanists. Leonardo da Vinci, as well as being one of the elite artists of his time, his passion for creativity made him one of the most developed intellectuals that the modern world has ever seen. He was educated in such subjects as engineering, anatomy and mechanics. He was such as a man as to say When I get a little money, I buy books; and if any is left, I buy food and clothes (Leonardo da Vinci), which meant he put knowledge before his life. These types of men might have been uncommon, but they did exist and were still eager to learn. They didn't really look at the Church or play a role in the Reformation unlike the humanists did. However, they did agree on one thing, which was the importance of education. So when Johann Genfleisch zum Gutenberg invented the moveable metal type printing press during the 1440's these people were able to gain knowledge much more easily than before. Previously books had been handwritten and it could take as long as a year to just to produce a single book. But with this invention two pressmen could manage to produce 50 sheets of literature within an hour (Clement, web site). When this came about education and literacy became more encouraged and important to the rest of Europe. Also now the humanists were able to translate, reproduce and pass on the ideas of other scholars through literature. It made the revival of classical thought easier and it made many more people become interested in reviving antiquity. The books were no longer just about religion and weren't just controlled by the Church and literature solely available to the monks. Now ordinary people could contribute to the literature that they read. Topics such as romance were for the women, business for the merchants and bankers, science and mathematics for the scholar. Also it enabled the Humanists to translate other people's works and spread their ideas across to other Humanists. With so many books available, more libraries were constructed for these purposes. Though it was rare for a library to hold more than 00 books, they still existed (Manchester, 5). The printing press allowed the sale of books to be relatively inexpensive so that the average workers were able to afford them. Previously books cost much more due to the high production cost and were fairly uncommon being only available to people with wealth to lavish on such luxuries. But by 1501 there was more than a 1,000 printing shops in Europe and over 100 of these belonged to Italy so virtually everybody had the access to books (Mee, 8).

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The Renaissance set the standard for modern western civilization. It was a vast improvement from the Middle Ages. Education was left to the people of the Church then but the Renaissance brought it out to whoever wished to acquire it. This more literate population led to a stronger economy. These people helped to improve art, business, science and other subjects. Art along with literature became the biggest movements within Europe. The paintings still flourish among our society today and are seen as the pinnacle of art. Though every good thing was rare and only came in moderation, the Renaissance was only a start of thing of what was to come. Many other changes took place in the16th Century which were much more advanced and they used many of the ideas of the Renaissance Men and scholars. As you can see, the Renaissance was to great extent a major turning point in history from the Middle Ages in just about every element of society. The Renaissance has truly become the original roots of Western culture. Calder, Ritchie. Leonardo & the Age of the Eye. London William Heinemann Ltd., 170.

Clement, Richard W. Medieval and Renaissance Book Production - Printed Books. http//orb.rhodes.edu/encyclop/culture/books/medbook.html

Cronin, Vincent. The Flowering of the Renaissance. London Collins Clear, 16.

Dannenfeldt, Karl H., ed. The Renaissance Medieval or Modern? Lexington D.C. Heath

and Company, 15.

Manchester, William. A World Lit Only by Fire. The Medieval Mind and the Renaissance Portrait of an Age. Toronto Little, Brown and Company, 1.

Mee, Charles L. Daily Life in the Renaissance. New York American Heritage Publishing Co., 175.

Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia. Renaissance Art and Architecture. 00. http//encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/refarticle.aspx?refid=7615545

Rizzatti, Maria L. The Life, Times and Art of Michelangelo. Verona Crescent Books, 166.

Santis, James de. Origin of accounting and bookkeeping. http//users.rowan.edu/~fran41/account/account.htm

Thompson, Stephen P., ed. The Renaissance. San Diego Greenhaven Press, Inc., 000.

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