The Rift Between a Constant Constitution and a Changing Society

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The Rift Between a Constant Constitution and a Changing Society

CC Mark R. McDowell

Throughout early American history there was a direct correlation between national interest and national identity, but with the changes of the 0th century regarding America's status in the world came changes regarding America's nature. American national identity has shifted away from alignment with the creed and vision of the Founding Fathers while American national interest has strived to continually act in accordance with that creed and vision. This shift is most evident when comparing America in the 10s with America in the 170s. By analyzing American national identity and American national interest in the 10s, and then comparing the two to the America established and sought after by the Founding Fathers, it will become evident that American national identity has truly deviated from the path which the founding fathers had hoped for and America had strived to walk for nearly two centuries. It will also become evident that American national identity affects national interest, but national interest does not derive from national identity as Samuel Huntington suggests (Erosion 1).

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In order to approach these issues, two questions must first be answered. What are national identity and national interest? How do these two terms apply to America? The answers to these two fundamental questions provide a foundation on which numerous other questions may be asked, analyzed, and answered. It can be seen that the first question is itself two questions which must be answered separately. Only then can the connections between the two be distinguished. So, what is national identity?

National identity provides a basic description of the oneness that a nation has and what provides that oneness, where oneness is a semblance of consistency in character which distinguishes the object in questionthe nationfrom others in an objective frame. In simpler terms, a national identity can be considered to be the matters that unite a given nation and separate it from other nations. In order for a country to have a national identity, it must first be a nation and more specifically have a general consensus of oneness to which the people subscribe. Secondly, the people may or may not have a unified conception of their oneness. When this definition is applied to America, the conclusion can be drawn that Americans' desire to do good, to find and provide the concept of freedom for all, to live in light through the institutions in place, through our democratic legal tradition, is the American national identity. This identity distinguishes America from every other country in the world because the desire to do good is so rooted that America feels obligated to rid the world of pure evil and in turn finds itself involved in the affairs of countries around the globe. Having defined national identity and applied it to America in a basic sense, the question of national interest must be resolved.

In "The Erosion of American National Interests," Samuel Huntington argues that a national interest is "a public good to all or most" people in that nation (6). The Commission on America's National Interests seems to agree with Huntington in stating that "national interests are conditions that safeguard and enhance…survival and well-being" of the people in that nation. Specifically, America's national interests stem directly from the fact that the purpose of the American government is to act for the greater good of the people. American government also has an obligation to do what is right and true. At this point, it is important to note that the terms "greater good," and "right and true" are relative to the morals of the people involved. One person may not consider the government to be acting on their behalf and on the side of truth if their moralstheir worldview coupled with their perspective on the hierarchy of what is important, right, and truediffer from those of the government. It shall be the purpose of the remainder of this paper to illustrate that the heart of American national identity is the morals of the American people which can be referred to as the creed that the people believe in, that the morals of the people have become unaligned with the creed of the government, and that this misalignment has led to the confusion of American national interests.

Having defined National identity as a onenesssomething common that distinguishes one nation from anotherAmerica can only contribute its national identity to the American creed, which in the time of the Founding Fathers was a belief that there are laws established by Nature's God which govern how humans ought to live, and that these laws were not debatable. In the Declaration of Independence, the Founding Fathers call upon "the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Natures God entitle them" to justify the decision of the thirteen colonies to break apart from England. This justification reveals the belief of the Founding Fathers in a standard, a moral code, which was right, true, and above all others. The people of that age apparently believed the same, for that is the platform on which colonists took a stand for in fighting for freedom from England. Some may argue that the colonists and Founding Fathers believed that there was this higher code because the majority of people were of Christian heritage and that people of different religions may believe that a different set of moral laws are governed by Nature's God. C.S. Lewis, who has a "reputation as one of the leading writers and thinkers of our age," disagrees with this line argument (). In his book Mere Christianity Lewis argues that what he calls the "Law of Human Nature" has been evident to everyone throughout history and that this law is consistent. On the subject he writes

But in the case of Man….The Law of Human nature, or of Right and Wrong, must be something above and beyond the actual facts of human behavior. In this case, besides the actual facts, you have something elsea real law which we did not invent and which we ought to obey (1).

What is of critical importance of Lewis' argument is that he comes to this conclusion, not by reading the Bible, or being a Christian, but by looking at the world around him and stating conclusions that are evident. Ironically, the first chapter of the book of Romans makes this same basic argument. Never-the-less, it is this line of logic which the Founding Fathers used as well, for they saw the goal of the government of a free people to be to search for the truth, which nature has provided, and apply that to every decision.

This line of logic contrasts strikingly with the line of logic which many Americans adhere to today. Moral relativism is a theme that pervades American society, but in all practicality disagrees with the foundation on which America was built. An encyclopedia of philosophy defines moral relativism in the following manner "Moral relativism, as opposed to other forms of relativism, is the view that moral standards are grounded only in social custom" (1). There are many arguments for and against moral relativism, but the point is that American culture has lend itself to a belief that nearly any action or decision is justifiable if seen in the proper moral light. Francis Beckwith writes the following on the issue

In moral debate in the United States today, many people resort to moral relativism. They argue that there are no objective moral values which help us to determine what is right or wrong. They claim everything is relative. In order to defend this position, the relativist puts forth two arguments (1) Since people and cultures disagree about morality, there are no objective moral values; () Moral relativism leads to tolerance of practices we may find different or odd. These two arguments are seriously flawed. In addition, the moral relativist has a difficult time explaining moral progress, moral reformation, and clear-cut cases of moral saints and moral devils (1).

Even more important is the realization that moral relativism is one way in which the American people have turned away from the teaching of the Founding Fathers. This turning away from the Founding Fathers has had serious implications for American society, one of the most apparent being the degradation of the American family.

On March 8, 165, Rev. Martin Luther King spoke from the pulpit on courage and said

Deep down in our non-violent creed is the conviction there are some things so dear, some things so precious, some things so eternally true that they're worth dying for. And if a man happens to be 6-years-old, as I happen to be, some great truth stands before the door of his lifesome great opportunity to stand up for what's right (1).

Rev. King had an understanding of the things that are "eternally true" and he stood up for them just as the Founding Fathers had done years before. In 1, President Bill Clinton saw the turmoil that America was going through in regards to the truth and justice which the Founding Fathers had sought and which King died for. In Memphis, President Clinton addressed this issue and said

"'But,' [King] would say, 'I did not live and die to see the American family destroyed. I did not live and die to see 1-year-old boys get automatic weapons and gun down -year-olds just for the kick of it…. That is not what I came here to do….I fought for freedom,' he would say, 'but not for the freedom of people to kill each other with reckless abandonment for the freedom of children to impregnate each other with babies and then abandon them, nor for the freedom of adult fathers of children to walk away from the children they created and abandon them, as if they didn't amount to anything'" (1).

President Clinton goes on to say that "it is our moral duty to turn this around" (). He realized that America had a moral obligation to do the right thing and that this moral obligation was not some idea of right and wrong that changes over the years and across cultures, but that it was the same laws of human nature as those sought after by the authors of the Constitution.

Americans' understanding and view of equality has also changed since the 170s. Since the establishment of the Constitution, America has continually strived to become a nation without racism, sexism, or any kind of prejudice. America had its struggles with slavery, with suffrage, and with racial discrimination, but all of these struggles have been in the hope that the American creed, the Protestant work ethic (Erosions ), and the foundations of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, would be adopted to the fullest extent by every American. In the 10s, there has been a move away from this hope as well, and it has come in the form of multiculturalism. In the introduction to his Government 158 class at Harvard, Professor Samuel Huntington argues that "In the decades before September 11th…. Multiculturalism was the rage in important intellectual circles….Race, which had been eliminated from the legal definition of national identity in the 160s, reappeared in law as the foundation of group rights. In academic and political circles, patriotism was denigrated" (1). In his "The Erosion of American National Interests" Huntington stated that "the ideologies of multiculturalism and diversity…question a central element in the American Creed by substituting for the rights of individuals the rights of groups." He also stated that America embodied "democracy, equality, republicanism" (4, ). If Americans' understanding of one of those three crucial underpinnings of American existence has changed and lost its original purpose, has America not lost the very thing that embodies it? It is here that there is the disconnect between American national interest and American national identity, for the American government strives to uphold the tenets of truth that the Founding Fathers provided, while the people have lost sight of that truth.

It is evident that the American national interest, embodied actively in the yearly release of the National Security Strategy, has in its interest those same tenets of truth that the Founders held so dear. The Preamble is quite clear about American interest.

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America (1).

The first line of the 16 National Security Strategy reflects this resolve which the American government is called to embody "Protecting our nation's securityour people, our territory and our way of lifeis my Administration's foremost mission and constitutional duty" (1). However, this straight forward objective is coupled with a vast array of objectives which seem to have no clear direction. This problem can be attributed to the ending of the Cold War and the lack of an enemy to stand up against on the side of truth and justice (Erosion 1), but it can also be attributed to an unfocused national identity in the sense that the people have lost sight of what is important.

This problem of establishing a clear set of national interests in the face of a changing national identity had to be addressed. The Commission on America's National Interests was established in order to help ensure that the US does not "lose its way" (1). This commission has come to the conclusion that US national interests are hierarchical and fall into categories of vital and less vital interests (). Their definition of vital national interests is "conditions that are strictly necessary to safeguard and enhance Americans' survival and well-being in a free and secure nation" (5). These are the elements which are necessary because they are required in order to uphold the objectives stated in the Preamble of the Constitution and discussed earlier. The elements which the commission have deemed vital are (1) to prevent, deter, and reduce threat of weapons of mass destruction; () to ensure allies' survival and commitment to developing a thriving international community; () to prevent emergence of hostile states; (4) ensure strength and stability of major global systems; and (5) establish productive relations consistent with national interest (Commission ).

These national interests are consistent with the interests and objectives discussed in the 00 National Security Strategy. They also comprise a sufficient group of national interests because if any one of these interests were to fail, the entire group would fail. If each aspect of the group is successful, America will continue to have the strength it currently enjoys. It is this group of interests which are vital because any other national interest, if compromised, would "not strictly imperil the ability of the US government to safeguard and enhance the well being of Americans in a free and secure nation" (6). Some examples of these interests which could be considered important to the nation, but not vital are (1) to prevent, deter, and reduce the threat of weapons of mass destruction anywhere; () to "promote the acceptance of international rules of law and mechanisms for resolving or managing disputes peacefully"; () to "prevent the emergence of a regional hegemon"; and (4) to "prevent massive, uncontrolled immigration across US borders" (Commission 6). Despite many objectives being national interests, only some are vital national interests, and most are interests which every first world country must incorporate into their objectives.

The 00 National Security Strategy is a crucial document for understanding the ties between national identity and national interest because it was released after the attacks of September 11th, but not so soon afterward that it reflects the shock of a nation. Instead it reflects a nation with resolve to return to its roots of moral truth in order to defeat the evil of terrorism. The National Security Strategy of 00 has more of a moral direction than that required by the general set of vital national interests already established. This moral direction is possible due to America possessing "unprecedented and unequaled strength in the world" (1). On top of the vital national interests, America has the opportunity to use its strength for decades of peace and prosperity as well as "championing aspirations for human dignity" (1). The National Security Strategy for 00 sees America as having a duty to the world to defend liberty at every corner of the globe and states that America will fight for "a peace that favors liberty" (1).

Samuel Huntington appears to have been correct in his "The Erosion of American National Interests" in arguing that it is in times of danger that people are truly able to reevaluate who they are and come together as a unified nation (1-). Despite the fact that America has been able to unify following the terrorist attacks, the issue still remains that American society and American national identity has changed over the years, but it is possible that the September 11th attacks provided an opportunity for Americans to consider whether their beliefs about the hierarchy of truth are consistent with the historic American creed upon which the nation was founded. In this light, it is possible that the attacks of September 11th were a blessing for the American nation despite at the same time being a tragic event in American history.

Having analyzed American national identity and American national interest, it has become clear that there is a tie between the identity and the interest, but that the national interest does not derive directly from the national identity. Instead, it appears that the national interest strives to stay aligned with the Constitutional teachings of the Founding Fathers, even when those who compose the national identitythe peoplehave lost sight of that truth and foundation. Since American identity is so tied to the morals, the belief, the creed of the people, it is essential that Americans come back to the realization of the Founding Fathersthat there are inalienable truths and America should be about the business of finding and establishing those for the good of mankind.

Works Cited

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America's National Interests." 18 Apr 00 www.nixoncenter.org

Bassani, Luigi. "The Bankruptcy of the Republican School." EbscoHost.

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Clinton, Bill. "Prayer Breakfast for Clergy." Washington DC. 11 September 18.

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Clinton, Bill. "Revives the Voice and Conscience of a Martyr." Memphis, TN. 1

November 1. http//www.pbs.org/greatspeeches.html

Huntington, Samuel. "Government 158. Who Are We? Issues of American National

Identity." Harvard. 11 Sept 0.

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King, Martin Luther, Jr. "Speaks from the Pulpit on Courage." Selma, AL. 8 March 165.

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Lincoln, Abraham. "Lyceum Address." Springfield Illinois. 7 January 188.

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Walzer, M. What it Means to be an American Essays on the American Experience. New

York Marsilio, 16. http//www.psa.ac.uk/spgrp/apg/baas/ashbee.pdf

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Artemis Fowl

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"Animal Farm" by George Orwell is a perfect replica of Joseph Stalin's control of Soviet Communism. The following touches upon plot and setting, character description, and my reaction.

Old Major, an old and respected boar, gathers the animals of the Manor Farm for a meeting in the big barn. He tells them about a dream that he had in which all animals live together with no human beings to oppress or control them. Three younger pigs named Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer turn his main principals into a philosophy called animalism.

They eventually revolt on the farmer and take control of the land. In the beginning Animal Farm prospers. Mr. Jones comes back to take his land back, but gets defeated in the "Battle of Cowshed." Snowball comes up with a plan to build an electricity-generating windmill. On the voting day, Snowball makes a wonderful speech and Napoleon only says a few words opposing the windmill. He gets very upset because his speech wasn't that convincing and he sends the dogs he's been training after Snowball. Snowball runs away and doesn't come back. Napoleon takes over the farm from that point on and declares the pigs will make all the decisions.

Soon after, Napoleon changes his mind on the windmill, and the animals start working on building it. He sleeps in a bed, drinks whisky, and engages in trade with neighboring farmers.

Mr. Fredrick, a neighboring farmer, cheats the animals out of their money and attacks the farm. The animals win the battle. However, Napoleon has sold his most loyal and long suffering worker Boxer to a glue factory in order to get money for whisky.

Years pass on the Animal Farm and the pigs start to act more like humans. They walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. Eventually, the seven commandments turn into one, "All animals are created equal, but some animals are more equal than others." Shortly after Napoleon declares his new motto "four legs good two legs better," he entertains a human farmer named Mr. Pilkington and declares his intent to ally himself with the human farmers. When the animals look through the window at the farmhouse, they can't tell which are the pigs and which are the human beings.

The main character is Napoleon. He is a pig who is probably very fat because he eats so much food and drinks so much whisky. Napoleon's strong points are his ability to lead. His weak points is how he never shows interest in the strength of the Animal Farm itself, only in the strength of his power over it. Napoleon portrays the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin.

A supporting character is Snowball. Snowball is a pig whose strong point is how he throws his heart and soul into spreading animalism worldwide. His weak point is that he basically accepts the superiority of the pigs over the rest of the animals. He portrays Leon Trotsky.

The other supporting character is Boxer. Boxer is an extremely strong horse. His strengths are that he exploits the best qualities of the working class- dedication, loyalty, and a huge capacity for labor. His weak point is his inability to recognize even the most blatant forms of political corruption. Boxer is loyal to the farm, and has a dedication of waking up every morning and working all day.

The lasting impression the book left with me is how the animals could be so clueless in what the pigs were doing. This book reminds me a lot of the three most infamous figures of the 0th century- Stalin and Hitler. In conclusion, I learned from this book that the pigs deceived the animals, just like our government can deceive us.

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Epicureanist Pleasure, Hedonism and Good Life

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Introduction

Happiness and Good Life in Epicureanism

Epicureanism A General Glance

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A Deeper Look

Bibliography 1

Introduction

The Hellenistic Age was a period of dislocation, a senselessness of the public order having resulted from the conquest of Greece by Alexander The Great who thus took over all the Greek ctiy-states and in a sense made their citizens alienated from their native societies. From this moment onwards many attempts were done to place the individual in a sensible role in the world that philosophies of self-sufficiency were some of the most significant ones. It was Cynicism, Epicureanism and Gnostic Religions which defended this self-sufficiency notion for all of them suggested to an extent a withdrawal from the community and reach self-sufficiency. Among them, I've found interesting to study Epicureanism since they are thought to have contributed the materialism of our age, being mostly favoured. Yet, it has been subject to lots of misreadings and distortions that it has often been perceived as becoming slaves of our passions. Nevertheless, it is worth to take a look at Epicirus and his teachings to see what morality they recommended.

Happiness and Good Life in Epicureanism

Epicureanism A General Glance

Before starting the analysis of our core concepts, I think a brief summary of Epicureanism will be helpful to understand further arguments. First of all, this philosophy is greatly influenced by the materialism of Democritus who suggested an atomistic theory for the basis of everything. All we see consist of homogenous atoms whose motions on the senses create the qualities of things. Such a point of view has further implacations that when employed to human nature, that materialism considers human beings formed by a collection of physical sensations. Thus, there is no soul, but just our bodies and our minds. Moreover, this body of our is engaged in a constant exchange of motion with its environment and that the wise and happy man according to Epicurus is the one who is capable of directing this relationship in a way that he/she perceives pleasure the most. Therefore, we see in the centre of his theory the concept of pleasure, seeking for it in the form of hedonism and thus through this process, reaching happiness and good life. Yet, his conceptualization of these terms are a bit different than that of we perceive today.

A Deeper Look

Like every philosophy tries to do, Epicurean ethics puts forward the necessary steps to be taken in order to live a happy life. However, what distinguish them is their fundemental unit guiding to the good life. In turn, what Epicurus considers the main unit of happiness is the concept of pleasure.

Actually, Epicurus wasn't the first hedonist, for we may refer to Aristippus who suggested a different pleasant life than that of Epicurus. While the former considers the absence of pain as an intermediate condition, Epicurus, as I am going to deal with closer in following sections, equated teh removal of pain with pleasure and that there was no such intermediate between them. In fact this assumption is one of the central arguments of distinct Epicurus' hedonism.

Later, the concept of pleasure was examined by both Plato and Aristotle. Yet, there is a clear distinction between on one hand Plato and Arsitotle and on the other Epicurus. Such a difference can be portrayed in terms of the relationship they offer between happiness and pleasure. Although all of them deal with the necessary conditions for the provision of happiness, only Epicurus identifies happiness with a pleasant life. Despite such a distinction, they have something in common, especially Arsitotle and Epicurus happiness is the final end of action. It is something that other things are chosen for its sake and it can't be chosen for the sake of anything else. "... which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else" Whenever we act, we try to gain a surplus of pleasure and our action is successful provided that it aims at happiness. To Aristotle, happiness is achieved by being engaged in some intellectual activities nad having some virtues which are "intrinsically valuable and thus the components of happiness" Yet, a clear difference is still obvious that for Plato and Aristotle, some pleasures are good and contribute to happiness while some are bad. On the other hand, Epicurus denies such a situation and accounts the pleasure as being good since the good means what causes pleasure. Therefore, he takes pleasure as something intrinsically valuable. While Aristotle and Plato think it is through virtues that the human excellence is what produces happiness, the hedonist equates it with pleasure "We begin every act of choice and avoidance from pleasure and it is to pleasure that we return using our experience of pleasure as the criterion of every good thing."

Furthermore, the goodness of pleasure doesn't need any proof that the cradle argument should be taken into consideration in this sense. It means Epicurus' taking happiness as a fact that all living creatures seek for and avoid pain, the latter meaning perceiving pleasure. "It rests on a conclusion supplied by nature herself and is the ground and basis of all our doing and not doing." The main point in this argument that the pain is bad and pleasure is good. What is more, the case needs no proof since it is evident in their perception. Such matters are sensed just like we do the heat of fire or sweetness of sugar, meaning they are never theorises. Therefore, I guess, Epicurus would never be in pains of doing so, since avoiding pain is pleasure.

"Men pursue pleasure that it is what they ought to pursue." We are sort of genetically programmed to seek what produces pleasure and to avoid what causes pain. According to Epicurus, probably no living creature can have any other goals since such a state will lead directlt to the good and happy life.

Having adopted the natural goodness of pleasure, we may now go on with a deeper analysis of the concept of pleasure and its relevance to hedonism, happy and good life.

"Since pleasure is the good which is primary and innate ,we don't chose every pleasure, but there are times when we pass over many pleasures of greater pain in their consequence for us. And we regard many pains as superior to pleasures when a greater pleasure arises for us after we have put with pains over a long time. Therefore, although every pleasure on account of its natural affinity to us is good, not every pleasure is to be chosen; similarly, though every pain is bad, not every pain is always to be avoided. It is proper to evaluate these things by a calculation and consideration of advantages and disadvantages. For sometimes we treat the good as bad and conversely the bad as good."

Most probably, this paragraph of Epicurus is the one explaining his distinct hedonism and pleasure-oriented philosophy in the most proper manner. Yet, there are more than just meets the eye if we do a reading of between lines. One of the most important feature of his hedonism, as mentioned above, is his refusal of any intermediate between pleasure and pain. They are related to each other in the sense that they are contradictories. Pleasure is in fact the logical opposite of pain, meaning nonpain or generally speaking, the absence of pain in mind and body the physical comfort or well-being of mind. The absence of one brings about the presence of the other. The real aim of all pleasure is thus obtaining freedom from pain, "the emancipation from evil." Therefore, as far as pleasure is concerned, we had better be saying that Epicurus employed a negative meaning of the concept. Furthermore, in physical terms, the pleasure is the result of the appropriate movement of atoms in the body. If such an harmony is distorted, pain comes to existence. Thus, pain can be thought as the disturbance of our natural constitution. "Pleasure is perceived when atoms are restored to their appropriate position within the body."

Yet, more things have to be said about the Epicurean pleasure. When we call it, we don't mean the pleasures of gratification neither the pleasures of the body, of the flesh, nor the sensual enjoyments as excitment, competition, money, prestige, etc... This is one of the most striking features of Epicurean theory that such an argument totally contrasts with our time's lifestyle which underlines those values. Then, isn't is odd to blame Epicureanism for being a slave of passion while it deemphasizes them?

"So, when we say that pleasure is the end of action, we don't mean the pleasures pf the dissipated and those that consist in having a good time, rather we mean the freedom from pain in the body and from disturbance in the mind. The pleasant life isn't the product of drinking party after another or of sexual intercourse with women and boys or of the sea food and other delicacies afforded by a luxurious table."

We may infer from this paragraph that Epicurus' ideal is far from what we mean by a pleasant life today. We furher understand that he employs a clear distinction within pleasure positive and negative or in other words kinetic and static pleasure. He undermined the importance of the former while emphasizing the latter in the route to happiness.

"The kinetic pleasures are composed of a process of removing pain which results in pleasurable sensations." For example, suppose that a man is hungry. He will naturally desire to eat and that satistfying this desire produces kinetic pleasure. However, to satisfy completely the desire for food just puts off the hunger to a later time. From the complete satisfaction of desire, in turn, Epicurus introduces the static pleasure. What is significant in this kind of pleasure is there is the comlplete absence of pain and enjoymant of this condition.

"The pleasure which we pursue isn't merely that which excites our nature by some gratification and which is felt with delight by the senses. We regard that as the greatest pleasure which is felt when all pain has been removed." What Ciceor describes here is nothing but solely the static pleasure.

Therefore, the complete satisfaction of desire is the static pleasure. Our needs lead us to desires which mean perceiving pain because of lacking something. In order to remove this pain and thus reach pleasure, desire has to be satisfied and this process is pleasurable. "Thus, the kinetic pleasure is a necessary condition of at least some static pleasure, but it isn't regarded by Epicurus as equivalent in value to static pleasure." If freedom from pain is the greatest pleasure, then we should satisfy our desires not for the sake of the pleasurable sensations as drinking or eating, but for the sake of the well-being of mind which emerges when all pain has been removed.

The significance of the distinction between kinetic and static pleasure is that it helps to show the identification of happiness wtih pleasure as mentioned before, in De Finibus, it is argued that the greatest pleasure isn't any kind of gratification, but it is what is perceived when all the pain has been removed. "For when we are freed from pain, we rejoice in the actual freedom and absence of all distress." Pleasure is thus the necessary consequence of pain's removal.

Epicurus doesn't deny kinetic pleasures are sources of pleasure. Rather, those pleasures are rejected to form a stable avoidance of pain in body and mind. This isn't not because he denies they are good, but they are the wrong kind of pleasure to be thought as the final end of action, it it the freedom from pain which is the final end. In fact, this is the motto of Epicurean philosophy. Being happy is directly identified with the state of aponia and ataraxia, meaning freedom from bodily adn mental pains. This is further provided by the perception of static pleasures. These two states together form happiness. The main point in Epicurean hedonism is that the state of the body isn't very important and this is reinforced by the humiliation of positive pleasures. Rather, the state of mind is of great importance since bodily pleasures are of short duration while "mental enjoyments are incorruptible." Actually, for the same reason, mental pains are more severe than those of the body because the body suffers from only present pains whereas the mind feels those of the past and the future. Being incorruptible, it is the satisfaction of our mental pleasures as aponia and ataraxia, which would supply us with a process culminating in happiness.

Because Epicurus argues the greatest pain is the mental disturbance, he also introduces some enemies causing a disturbance in the name of the fear of gods, fear of death and fear of torments of hell. "Before one can enjoy the fruits of living, one must free oneself of certain crippling liabilities." Both Epicurus an Lucreitus try to show that such liabilities were groundless on the basis of the atomic theory. The first fear, fear of gods is groundless since even if gods existed, they don't intervene to the human world. The fear of death is also futile because there is no soul, just a body and mind, thus the death just means the termination of the exchange of motion. Moreover, the torment of hell doesn't exist since there is no afterlife because there is no soul, even if it existed, it would be mortal. Yet, the fear of death is in turn the main cause for many human vices as greed, murder, envy, etc... "The blind avarice and lust for office are fed byt the dread of death. In order not to fall into poor ills, men are driven by the spurious fear to inflate their means through civic strife and to compound murder with murder whilst they avidly triple their wealth... This fear plagues their self-respect, ruptures the bonds of affection."

Consequently, to sum up, Epicurus' hedonism should exhibit such qualities The miniziming of all pains of living including those three big fears, the maximizing of "inner peace and serenity " and well being of mind. Moreover, in order to judge whether an act is moral or immoral, our criterion shouldn't be the act itself, nor rules of any behaviour, but according to the experience it causes, meaning its long-term consequences. It was in fact on this basis Epicurus developed its theory of not every pleasure is desirable and not every pain is rejected, since their consequences may lead us to greater pleasures or pains. "Any pleasure... which fails to remove the greatest pain is ruled out as an ultimate object of choice by this rule absence of pain determines the magnitude of pain... A man may enjoy an evening's drinking or the thrill of betting, but the pleasure which he derives from satisfying his desires for drink and gambling must be set against the feeling of the morning after the anxiety of losing money"

Furthermore, Epicurus' hedonism is a limited and moderate one in the sense that whenever one isn't experiencing pain or distress, one will be in a state of pleasure and such a situation can't be made more pleasurable. The comlpete absence of pain determines the limit of the greatest pleasure and from this degree on, it can be varied, but not increased. Therefore, a combination of aponia and ataraxia provides one to be in a state of pleasure that can't be improved. This is where the life can't get better. Thus, there is a line boyond which pleasure can't be expanded. As far as gratification is concerned, the limit is when the pain is removed. However, such a boundary requires an intellectual process since the body recognizes no limits of pleasure. For there is no intermediate between pleasure and pain, as long as one isn't in pain or distress, then one is in the state of pleasure which can't be improved by any addition of kinetic pleasures.

Therefore, a simple life is recommended by Epicurus because its needs and desires are just simple. In order to provide happiness for his argument, he introduces a further classification of desires into three classes

1. Natural and necessary

. Natural but not necessary

. Neither natural nor necessary

The first category consists of the desires for the things which bring relief from pain. These desires' satisfaction are necessary if one wishes to reach happiness. Yet, moreover, they are further required for the health and equilibrium of the body and of the life. Such disres are based on knowing how we refer to choice and avoidance to the health of the body and freedom from mental disturbance. The main point is its removal is to live happy. Their final form can be found in a state of aponia and ataraxia.

The second class are the desires for things which will vary pleasure rather than remove pain. The distinction between the fisrt and the second categories can be illustrated as follows we may be at the needs of food for survival. However, it is up to us to eat food or to eat expensive food, while the former is necessary and natural, the latter isn't a necessary desire, but just a verison of it. For it isn't necessary for one's survival.

The third division are the desires for the things as"crowns or erection of states" . They are originated in false beliefs acquired through false perceiption of the truth. Thus, they arise from "empty belief."

Consequently, having described the qualities of Epicurean hedonism and the concept of happiness through pleasure, we may now sum them up to a description of the good life. According to Epicurus, a good life is the one involving disciplining the appetites, curtailement of desires and needs to the possible minimum for the healthy living. Moreover, the detachment from the most favoured goals of society and a withdrawal from the active participation in the life of the society. What is prescribed, in turn, is to retreat to the company of our friends and living a world of non-worldy, intellectual life as contemplation.

Such a lifestyle was that of Epicurus. First, he withdrew from active participation in the life of the society and secluded himself with friends in a "walled Garden" . Second, he lived a simple life, an easy one to satisfy, especially in terms of diet. He ate no meat, drank no wine. Third, he spent his time to unworldy concerns as study and contemplation. Fourth, he didn't engage himself in sexual intercourse, which he thinks the most painful pleasure, thus had better be avoided. He suggests that, as he did in his life, a rational calculation of pleasure-pain relationship is vital. For instance, if one can judge that six beers will bring about a serious hangover, it will be wise to take only three. Thus by analyzing its long-term consequences, pleasures or pains should be preferred with a great care. A choice between a luxurious diet and a simple pne or a life of contemplation and life of politics must be an easy one, being in favor or simplicity and intellectual activity since they offer minimum pain, then greatest pleasure.

Lastly, the position of old goods of Greek philosophy like prudence, justice, moderation, courage or virtue should be examined from the Epicurean perspective. Since the pleasure is the olny good thing, all those other values are of secondary importance for they may be called as means of happiness, not as ends. For example moderation is required because it provides well-being of mind by allowing us to choose simple desires of the simple life. Similarly, courage offers us to live without anxiety, which may harm ataraxia. Actually, Epicurus considered such values as inseparable with happiness since they may serve as means to achieve it. The relationship between virtue and pleasure is of great significance that Epicureanism emphasizes its importance by saying that pleasure requires a reasoned activity of the advantages and disadvantages of an action. Thus, virtue can't be evaluated in the sense it has in pre-Epicurean philosophers who suggested virtue benefits whole society. Yet, such a view isn't valid in our inquiry for it is at his core individualistic, a situation apparent in its name self-sufficiency philosophy.

Therefore to employ virtue for its own sake is nothing but imagination to Epicurus' opinion. Pleasure and happiness are the only objective of our actions and all other things are taken up for their sake. Virtue by itself means nothing in pleasurable terms, yet when it leads the way to pleasure, it becomes loaded with meaning. Its specific task is to free individuals from the worries and fears of the world, which all carry the potential to generate a mental disturbance. Virtue helps us in subordianting our worldy passions to avoidance of pain, in living a simple life, in achieving self-control and sufficiency. Thus, Epicurean virtue is never an end by itself. However, it is closey realted to pleasure as being a means to it. The wisest man in fact is the one being capable of directing his desires and life in the proper way to maximise his/her pleasure. To sum up, it serves to reach complete freedom of mental pain.

Finally, if Epicurean ethics suggested such a positive way of living, a one of simplicity and happiness, why is it always badly approached in our age? The answer is obvious for there were Epicureans and Epicureans "sectarians suggesting a secluded life and Epicureans in the world." The second group is who distorted Epicureanism since they always sought for the maximisation of positive pleasures. Yet the main point is that, "where ideals are too light and austere, they are bound to be dilluted and corrupted by that coarse breed, man-in-the-world." It was this move from negative pleasures to positive pleasures which discredited Epicureanism in time and turned it into a slavery of passions. This can be also valid for Christianity that in some cases, it has been misinterpreted and distorted. "In each case the pearl of great price has been trampled by the herd."

Bibliography

§ Everson, Stephen. History of Philosophy From Aristotle to Augustine Vol., Edited by David Furley, Routlegde Press, New York,1

§ Lung, A.A. Hellenistic Philosophy Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics, Second Edition, Edited by Hugh Lloyd Jones, Gerald Duckworth-company Limited Press, London, 180

§ Striker, Gisele. Essays on Hellenistic Epistemology and Ethics, Cambridge Press, USA, 16

§ Strodach, George K. Philosophy of Epicureans, Books on Demand, Northwestern University Press, USA, 16

§ Zeller, E. Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics pt., Books on Demand, Bell&Howell Company, Michigan, 18

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Privacy in America Workplace Drug Testing

December 1, 17

Today, in some industries, taking a drug test is as routine as filling out a job application. In fact, workplace drug testing is up 77 percent from 187; despite the fact that random drug testing is unfair, often inaccurate and unproven as a means of stopping drug use.

But because there are few laws protecting our privacy in the workplace, millions of American workers are tested yearly, even though they arent suspected of drug use.

Buy custom Drug Testing and the Right to Privacy term paper

As a soldier in the United States Army, I am subjected to random drug testing on a constant basis. I know first hand how degrading and uncomfortable it is to have a junior ranking employee observe you 100% while doing one of the most personal body functions we do. However, random drug testing does not discriminate against anyone in the U.S. Army.

Employers have the right to expect workers not to be high or drunk on the job. But they shouldnt have the right to require employees to prove their innocence by taking a drug test. I strongly support pre-employment and pre-enlistment drug testing as a means for qualifying an individual for a position. However, unless an employer as valid suspicions, i.e., injury, excessive absenteeism, or first hand knowledge, I do not believe in random drug testing. It is not right for individuals with unblemished work records to be taken away from their duties to be humiliated and forced to urinate in a cup with a "licensed" observer.

Thats not how America should work.

INVASION AND ERROR

Routine drug tests are intrusive. Often, another person is there to observe the employee to ensure there is no specimen tampering. Even indirect observation can be degrading; typically, workers must remove their outer garments and urinate in a bathroom in which the water supply has been turned off.

The lab procedure is a second invasion of privacy. Urinalysis reveals not only the presence of illegal drugs, but also the existence of many other physical and medical conditions, including genetic predisposition to disease, or pregnancy. In 188, the Washington, D.C. Police Department admitted it used urine samples collected for drug tests to screen female employees for pregnancy without their knowledge or consent.

Furthermore, human error in the lab, or the tests failure to distinguish between legal and illegal substances, can make even a small margin of error add up to a huge potential for false positive results. In 1, an estimated million tests were administered. If five percent yielded false positive results (a conservative estimate of false positive rates) then 1.1 million people could have been fired, or denied jobs because of a mistake.

I waited for the attendant to turn her back before pulling down my pants, but she told me she had to watch everything I did. I am a 40-year-old mother of three nothing I have ever done in my life equals or deserves the humiliation, degradation and mortification I felt. From a letter to the ACLU describing a workplace drug test.

TESTS THAT FAIL

Claims of billions of dollars lost in employee productivity are based on guesswork, not real evidence. Drug abuse in the workplace affects a relatively small percentage of workers. A 14 National Academy of Sciences report found workplace drug use ranges from a modest to a moderate extent, and noted that much of reported drug use may be single incident, perhaps even at events like office parties.

Furthermore, drug tests are not work-related because they do not measure on-the-job impairment. A positive drug test only reveals that a drug was ingested at some time in the past. Nor do they distinguish between occasional and habitual use.

Drug testing is designed to detect and punish conduct that is usually engaged in off-duty and off the employers premises, that is, in private. Employers who conduct random drug tests on workers who are not suspected of using drugs are policing private behavior that has no impact on job performance.

FAR FROM FOOLPROOF Sometimes drug tests fail to distinguish between legal and illegal substances. Depronil, a prescription drug used to treat Parkinsons disease, has shown up as an amphetamine on standard drug tests. Over-the-counter anti-inflammatory drugs like Ibuprofen have shown up positive on the marijuana test. Even the poppy seeds found in baked goods can produce a positive result for heroin.

ABOUT SAFETY-SENSITIVE OCCUPATIONS

Alertness and sobriety are, of course, imperative for certain occupations, such as train engineers, airline pilots, truck drivers and others. Yet even in these jobs, random drug testing does not guarantee safety. First, drug-related employee impairment in safety-sensitive jobs is rare. There has never been a commercial airline accident linked to pilot drug use. And even after a 14 Amtrak accident in which several lives were lost, investigators discovered the train engineer had a well-known history of alcohol, not drug, abuse.

Computer-assisted performance tests, which measure hand-eye coordination and response time, are a better way of detecting whether employees are up to the job. NASA, for example, has long used task-performance tests to determine whether astronauts and pilots are unfit for work whether the cause is substance abuse, fatigue, or physical illness.

Drug tests dont prevent accidents because they dont address the root problems that lead to substance abuse. But good management and counseling can. Employee assistance programs (EAPs) help people facing emotional, health, financial or substance abuse problems that can affect job performance. EAP counselors decide what type of help is needed staff support, inpatient treatment, AA meetings, and the like. In this context, the goal is rehabilitation and wellness not punishment.

At the Army Reserve Personnel Command in Saint Louis, MO, there is a Employee Substance Assistance Program (ESAP) designed to assist the civilian employees. However, the civilian employees are not subjected to the random drug tests. Only the military personnel who work side-by-side with these civilian employees are tested. In fact, there have been several civilian government employees at this same location who have been arrested and jailed for non-work related drug charges, and yet they return to work with out consequences.

Employers need to kick the drug test habit.

SOURCES American Management Association survey, Workplace Drug Testing and Drug Abuse Policies; R. DeCresce, Drug Testing in the Workplace (BNA, 18); Under the Influence? Drugs and the American Workforce, National Academy of Sciences, 14; J.P. Morgan, The Scientific Justification for Urine Drug Testing, University of Kansas L.R., 188.

WHAT THE ACLU IS DOING

Privacy the right to be left alone is one of our most cherished rights. Yet because so few laws protect our privacy, the American Civil Liberty Unions (ACLU) campaign for privacy in the workplace is very important, particularly in the private sector.

The ACLU is working in the states to help enact legislation to protect workplace privacy rights. They have created a model statute regulating workplace drug testing. In 16 the ACLU launched a public education campaign to help individuals across the nation become aware of the need for increased workplace privacy rights.

Much more work remains to be done. As of mid 17, only a handful of states ban testing that is not based on individual suspicion Montana, Iowa, Vermont, and Rhode Island. Minnesota, Maine and Connecticut permit not-for-cause testing, but only of employees in safety-sensitive positions. These laws also require confirmation testing, lab certification and test result confidentiality.

Hawaii, Louisiana, Maryland, Nebraska, Oregon and Utah regulate drug testing in some fashion; Florida and Kansas protect government employee rights, but not those of private sector workers. Only in California, Massachusetts and New Jersey have the highest courts ruled out some forms of drug testing on state constitutional or statutory grounds.

May 1, 00

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

NEW YORK Citing the first-ever large-scale national study confirming that school drug testing fails to curb student drug use, the American Civil Liberties Union today called on schools to heed these important new findings and end drug testing programs.

In light of these findings, schools should be hard-pressed to implement or continue a policy that is intrusive and even insulting for their students, especially when drug testing fails to deter student drug use, said Graham Boyd, Director of the ACLU Drug Policy Litigation Project.

While school drug testing has recently become a huge topic of debate in the courts, in schools, and among the general public, there has not, until now, been any conclusive research on whether drug testing is effective in addressing student drug use and how widespread testing is in schools. This federally funded study answers both of these questions.

The study, published last month in the Journal of School Health, a peer-reviewed publication of the American School Health Association, found no statistical difference regarding rates of drug use between schools that implemented drug testing policies and those that had not. Analyzing data collected between 18 and 001 from 76,000 students in 8th, 10th and 1th grades, the study found that drug testing of any kind was not a significant predictor of marijuana or other illicit drug use by students, including athletes.

The United States Supreme Court, which allowed random school drug testing twice for athletes and students in competitive, extra-curricular activities, both times relied on the premise that drug testing plays an important role in deterring drug use. Obviously, the Justices did not have the benefit of this study, said Boyd, who last year argued against an Oklahoma school drug testing policy in a Supreme Court challenge. But schools do, and we urge them to heed these results.

The study concludes that drug testing in schools may not provide a panacea for reducing student drug use that some (including some on the Supreme Court) had hoped…To prevent harmful student behaviors such as drug use, school policies that address…key values, attitudes, and perceptions may prove more important in drug prevention than drug testing.

The study also found that the percentages of schools adopting drug testing policies between 18 and 001 was relatively low, with only 18 percent of schools implementing drug testing policies, the majority focusing on those who are suspected of using drugs. Suspicion less drug testing was far less common less than five percent of schools in the study drug tested athletes, and only two percent of schools drug tested students in extracurricular activities.

The ACLU, which has been fighting random student drug testing, welcomed this news. The research in this study supports the opinion of doctors, social workers and education professionals many of whom submitted friend-of-the-court briefs supporting the ACLU's Supreme Court challenge that students and student athletes should not be singled out for involuntary screening for drugs, Boyd said.

As a policy matter, violating students' rights while doing nothing to reduce the amount of drug use in schools makes little sense, he added, noting that other studies have demonstrated that the single best way to prevent drug use among students is to engage them in extra-curricular activities.

http//www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/text/ryldjpom0.pdf

Houston Business Journal

http//houston.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/000/07/4/focus.html?t=printable

IN DEPTH HEALTH CARE QUARTERLY

Drug use, abuse remain serious workplace problem

Becky Vance

It is commonly assumed that the growth of corporate drug testing programs has solved the workplace drug abuse problem. Some companies may indeed see a decrease in the number of positive test results. But the number of employees trying to cheat, or adulterate their tests, is increasing.

In Texas, cheating on drug tests is a misdemeanor, but vast numbers of drug users still try. A quick search of the Internet reveals dozens of anti-drug testing Web sites where so-called cleansing aids are sold for the sole purpose of helping drug users produce a clean urine drug screen. Drug users can even purchase freeze-dried urine, or human urine that is purported to be clean.

Additionally, anti-drug testing sites, such as (http//www.testclean.com), list companies nationwide, along with an overview of the types of drug tests they require. While I was using the Internet search engines, Yahoo, Goggle, etc, I received more results for "100% Guarantee Test Clean" web sites than I received on the subject I was looking for. No matter which way I typed my query in the search box, the results always came back with a tremendous amount of sites from companies that offer products to prevent positive drug urinalysis results.

Employers are now starting to address adulteration in several ways. Many are revising their policies to treat all adulterated tests as positives. When hiring new employees, they are narrowing the window between the time the applicant must obtain a drug test and the offer of employment. The U.S. Department of Transportation, which oversees more than 8 million workers in safety-sensitive positions in the transportation industry, is considering requiring laboratories to test for adulterants.

EMPLOYED USERS

According to the American Management Associations annual Survey on Workplace Drug Testing and Drug Abuse Policies, workplace drug testing has increased by more than 1,00 percent since 187. Most Fortune 500 companies conduct pre-employment drug tests, and virtually all companies that employ drug testing show steady decreases in drug use.

That, however, has led to a troublesome, albeit not entirely unexpected result Small businesses, which employ over half of the nations workforce, are now a magnet for drug users. And it is these companies that can least afford the legal and business exposures associated with workplace substance abuse.

In stark contrast to the popular fantasy that drug users are unemployed losers, approximately 75 percent of adult illicit drug users -- some 8.5 million people -- are employed. It is estimated that at least one employee in 10 has a problem with alcohol or drugs. No company, large or small, is immune from this problem. However, how can companies test for alcohol related incidents.

Businesses should be concerned about the bottom-line impact of substance abuse in the workplace Absenteeism, de-creased productivity, higher insurance costs, and liability-related expenses.

§ Absenteeism is 66 percent higher among drug users.

§ Health benefit utilization is 00 percent higher among drug users.

§ Almost half (47 percent) of workplace accidents are drug related.

§ Disciplinary actions are 0 percent higher among drug users.

§ Employee turnover is significantly higher among drug users.

CHANGING LAWS

Laws pertaining to workplace drug testing in the United States are always changing, with courts, legislatures and regulatory agencies at both the federal and the state levels continually modifying their approach. Employers must keep abreast of these changes and regularly reevaluate their drug policies.

An employers right to implement drug and alcohol testing depends on several factors, including whether the employer is in the public or private sector, the employees are contract or at will, and whether the company is covered by the U.S. Department of Transportation regulations. Collective bargaining agreements may also enter the mix.

In Texas, laws and statutes that affect drug testing include The National Labor Relations Act, state and federal employment discrimination statutes (Title VII and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)), the Family and Medical Leave Act, workers compensation statutes, unemployment compensation statutes, state constitutions and privacy laws.

Employees are not entitled to unemployment benefits if they are fired for violating a written drug testing policy. And, while the ADA protects qualified individuals with a disability, including alcoholics and recovering drug addicts, the term disability does not include a current condition of addiction, and drug tests are not considered medical examinations under the ADA.

Although some industries, occupations and demographic groups are statistically prone to substance abuse and addiction, none are immune. Research has shown that employees who receive information about alcohol and other drugs, who work for companies with written policies and who have access to employee assistance programs definitely have lower rates of illicit drug and alcohol use.

Thus, common sense and solid evidence tell us that drug testing is good business. And every employer is in a position to address substance abuse and addiction in the workplace. Stopping it will require effort, understanding and some expense. The victory, however, is well worth both the effort and the initial costs, because no business can afford the cost of doing nothing.

Drug Use Among 8th, 10th, and 1th Graders

The percentages below show drug use trends among 8th, 10th, and 1th graders over the last years as reported by NIDAs 16 Monitoring the Future study. The study, conducted by the University of Michigans Institute for Social Research, has surveyed a representative sample of 1th graders each year since 175. In 11, the study first began surveying 8th and 10th graders. see Marijuana and Tobacco Use Up Again Among 8th and 10th Graders

8th Graders 10th Graders 1th Graders

14 15 16 14 15 16 14 15 16

MARIJUANA/HASHISH

Lifetime 16.7 1. .1 0.4 4.1 .8 8. 41.7 44.

Annual 1.0 15.8 18. 5. 8.7 .6 0.7 4.7 5.8

0-day 7.8 .1 11. 15.8 17. 0.4 1.0 1. 1.

Daily 0.7 0.8 1.5 . .8 .5 .6 4.6 4.

INHALANTS

Lifetime 1. 1.6 1. 18.0 1.0 1. 17.7 17.4 16.6

Annual 11.7 1.8 1. .1 .6 .5 7.7 8.0 7.6

0-day 5.6 6.1 5.8 .6 .5 . .7 . .5

Daily 0. 0. 0. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.

HALLUCINOGENS

Lifetime 4. 5. 5. 8.1 . 10.5 11.4 1.7 14.0

Annual .7 .6 4.1 5.8 7. 7.8 7.6 . 10.1

0-day 1. 1.7 1. .4 . .8 .1 4.4 .5

Daily 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

COCAINE

Lifetime .6 4. 4.5 4. 5.0 6.5 5. 6.0 7.1

Annual .1 .6 .0 .8 .5 4. .6 4.0 4.

0-day 1.0 1. 1. 1. 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.8 .0

Daily 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0. 0.

CRACK COCAINE

Lifetime .4 .7 . .1 .8 . .0 .0 .

Annual 1. 1.6 1.8 1.4 1.8 .1 1. .1 .1

0-day 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.6 0. 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0

Daily 0.1 0.1 0.

HEROIN

Lifetime .0 . .4 1.5 1.7 .1 1. 1.6 1.8

Annual 1. 1.4 1.6 0. 1.1 1. 0.6 1.1 1.0

0-day 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.5 0. 0.6 0.5

Daily 0.1 0.1 0.1

STIMULANTS

Lifetime 1. 1.1 1.5 15.1 17.4 17.7 15.7 15. 15.

Annual 7. 8.7 .1 10. 11. 1.4 .4 . .5

0-day .6 4. 4.6 4.5 5. 5.5 4.0 4.0 4.1

Daily 0.1 0. 0.1 0.1 0. 0.1 0. 0. 0.

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 55.8 54.5 55. 71.1 70.5 71.8 80.4 80.7 7.

Annual 46.8 45. 46.5 6. 6.5 65.0 7.0 7.7 7.5

0-day 5.5 4.6 6. . 8.8 40.4 50.1 51. 50.8

Daily 1.0 0.7 1.0 1.7 1.7 1.6 . .5 .7

CIGARETTES (ANY USE)

Lifetime 46.1 46.4 4. 56. 57.6 61. 6.0 64. 6.5

Annual NA

0-day 18.6 1.1 1.0 5.4 7. 0.4 1. .5 4.0

1/ pack + per day .6 .4 4. 7.6 8. .4 11. 1.4 1.0

STEROIDS

Lifetime .0 .0 1.8 1.8 .0 1.8 .4 . 1.

Annual 1. 1.0 0. 1.1 1. 1. 1. 1.5 1.4

0-day 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0. 0.7 0.7

Daily 0.1 0.1 0.4 0. 0.

Indicates less than 0.05 percent.

From National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) NOTES, March/April 17

Drug Use Estimates4.1 million Americans aged 1 or over (41.7% of the US population aged 1 and over) have used an illicit drug at least once in their lifetimes. Source Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services, Results from the 001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse Volume 1. Summary of National Findings (Rockville, MD Office of Applied Studies, August 00), p. 10, Table H.1 & p. 110, Table H.. According to the National Household Survey, in 001, 8.4 million Americans aged 1 or over (1.6% of the US population aged 1 and over) used an illicit drug. Of these, 1.1 million were White, .1 million were Black, and . million were Hispanic. Source Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services, Results from the 001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse Volume 1. Summary of National Findings (Rockville, MD Office of Applied Studies, August 00), p. 10, Table H.1; p. 110, Table H.; p. 10, Table G.4; and p. 1, Table H.14. An estimated 71 thousand Americans used crack cocaine in 18. Of those, 46 thousand were White, 4 thousand were Black, and 157 thousand were Hispanic. Source Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse Population Estimates 18 (Washington DC US Department of Health and Human Services, 1), pp. 7-.Below are the results of the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse 001, showing estimates of the US population aged 1 and over who admit to using substances. It is important to note that the Survey finds very slight use of hard drugs like cocaine, heroin and crack. (Note Numbers of users are in millions.) Substance Ever Used Used in Past Year Used in Past Month Number of Frequent Users

Alcohol 184.4 million 81.7% 14.6 million 6.7% 10.0 million 48.% 46. million 0.5%

Tobacco 161.0 million 71.4% 78.6 million 4.8% 66.4 million .5% N/A

Marijuana 8. million 6.% 1.0 million .% 1.1 million 4.8% N/a

Cocaine 7.7 million 1.% 4.1 million 1.% 1.6 million 0.7% N/A

Crack 6. million .8% 1.0 0.% 0.4 0.% N/A

Heroin .0 million 1.4% 0.45 0.% 0.1 0.1% N/A

Source Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services, Results from the 001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse Volume 1. Summary of National Findings (Rockville, MD Office of Applied Studies, August 00), p. 10, Table H.1; p. 110, Table H.; p. 1, Table H.1; and p. 10, Table H.. Below are results from a survey of drug use in The Netherlands published in 1. Note the difference in drug use prevalence. For more information check out the Netherlands section of Drug War Facts. Substance Ever Used Used in Past Year Used in Past Month Number of Frequent Users

Alcohol 0.% 8.5% 7.% 4.% of past month users

Cigarettes 67.% 8.1% 4.% not tracked by survey

Marijuana 15.6% 4.5% .5% 5.6% of past month users

Cocaine .1% 0.6% 0.% 1.8% of past month users

Crack not tracked separately

Heroin 0.% 0.1% too low to track too low to track

Source University of Amsterdam, Center for Drug Research, Licit and Illicit Drug Use in the Netherlands, 17 (Amsterdam University of Amsterdam, September 1), pp. 45, 46, 47, 55.

Drug War Facts is a project of Common Sense for Drug Policy.

Copyright 000-00, Common Sense for Drug Policy

Updated Monday, 14-Oct-00 15165 PDT ~ Accessed 47776 times

Becky Vance is senior director of Drug-Free Business Alliance (http//www.drug-freeworkplace.org), a division of the Council on Alcohol and Drugs Houston.

000 American City Business Journals Inc.

Article chosen Drug use, abuse remain serious workplace problem

Copyright 000 American City Business Journals Inc.

Publication Houston Business Journal

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Organisational Behaviour

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1. Introduction

We are going to examine numerous case studies, the theories of Maslow, Herzberg, Vroom & Adam's and other supporting evidence, in relation to job satisfaction. We will look at why the study of job satisfaction is important for managers, what factors influence job satisfaction in organisations and what is the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity.

There is no direct theory regarding job satisfaction, however there are endless case studies and articles on this topic. The theories referred to all have their academic critics as well as avid supporters.

Job satisfaction has been one of the most extensively discussed and studied concepts in organisational and personnel management, accounting for thousands of published works. The information generated by research into this area has practical implications for individuals and organisations alike, as employees strive for the best quality of life possible and managers are faced with the ever- increasing challenge of operating efficient, effective organisations using the human and technological resources available to them. Understanding job satisfaction and what it means is not only a desirable, but also a critical aspect of life for both organisations and individuals.

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. What is Job Satisfaction & Why is the study of it important?

Job satisfaction is about how individuals feel about their jobs i.e. their attitude. It is an outcome of their perception of their jobs and the degree to which there is a good fit between them and the organisation. Numerous aspects of the job impact job satisfaction, including pay, promotional opportunities, supervisors & co-workers as well as factors of the work environment, such as policies & procedures, working conditions and fringe benefits. (Ivancevich et al. 1 1)

A major reason why the study of job satisfaction is so important is to provide managers with ways to improve employee attitudes. The levels of employee job satisfaction are determined by many organisations from attitude surveys. It is difficult to determine the actual degree of job satisfaction from surveys, particularly in a specific department as well as a bias towards giving a positive answer. (Ivancevich et al. 1 )

. Relevant Theories

There are numerous theories in relation to motivation, but no direct theory for job satisfaction. However, these theories provide aspects and important insights for managers, particularly in terms of employee needs and job satisfaction. The relevant theories and an outline of each follows;

Herzberg's two-factor theory

In the late 150s, Frederick Herzberg, considered by many to be a pioneer in motivation theory, interviewed a group of employees to find out what made them satisfied and dissatisfied on the job. He asked the employees essentially two sets of questions

1. Think of a time when you felt especially good about your job. Why did you feel that way?

. Think of a time when you felt especially bad about your job. Why did you feel that way?

From these interviews Herzberg went on to develop his theory that there are two dimensions to job satisfaction motivation and hygiene

The absence of hygiene factors in the workplace causes dissatisfaction, however their presence at an acceptable level would only produce a neutral feeling. It is then argued that the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction. It is also argued that the presence of 'motivators' would produce high levels of job satisfaction and motivation.

? This theory links with Maslow's theory, in particular hygiene factors line up with security and physiological needs, as well as 'motivators' which aligns with the opportunity for people to satisfy their higher order needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Abraham Maslow published his theory of human motivation in 14. Maslows insight was to place actualisation into a hierarchy of motivation. Self-actualization, as he called it, is the highest drive, but before a person can turn to it, he or she must satisfy other, lower motivations like hunger, safety and belonging. The hierarchy has five levels.

1. Physiological (hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, etc.)

. Safety (security, protection from physical and emotional harm)

. Social (affection, belonging, acceptance, friendship)

4. Esteem (also called ego). The internal ones are self-respect, autonomy, achievement and the external ones are status, recognition, and attention.

5. Self actualization (doing things)

? As is Herzbergs theory, Maslow's theory is more widely accepted by managers than by researchers. Research findings on Maslow's theory fail to support the existence of a needs hierarchy. Instead they suggest there is only two levels physiological and all other needs.

Maslow points out that the hierarchy is dynamic; the dominant need is always shifting. Satisfaction is relative. He notes that a satisfied need no longer motivates. For example, a hungry man may be desperate for food, but once he eats a good meal, the promise of food no longer motivates him.

One of the most common critisms concerning his methodology however , revolved around only, picking a small number of people that he himself declared self-actualising, then reading about them or talking with them, and coming to conclusions about what self-actualization is in the first place. In his defence, it should point out that he understood this, and thought of his work as simply pointing the way. He hoped that others would take up the cause and complete what he had begun in a more rigorous fashion.

Vroom's expectancy theory

Victor Vroom suggests that employees behave in certain ways because of the outcomes they expect as a result of their performance and because of the attractiveness of those outcomes.

Vroom argues that individual choices are determined by an individual's assessment of the relationship between effort and performance, between performance and the attainment and the value of those rewards. This theory suggests performance leads to satisfaction, but satisfaction does not lead to performance.

Adams' equity theory

Adam's theory was developed in 165 and essentially it is about perceived fairness in the workplace. It states that people trade inputs for outcomes with inputs being effort, time, skill and outcomes being pay, recognition or opportunities for social interaction.

Adam's argues that each worker perceives a ratio of their inputs to outcomes and compares this to an appropriate person. If the ratios are not similar, the worker will see an imbalance or inequity, which then leads towards feelings of discomfort and tension, resulting in lower levels of job satisfaction.

4. Influencing factors & Related studies

There are numerous dimensions associated with job satisfaction in organisations, with five in particular that have crucial characteristics. They are pay, job, promotion opportunities, supervisor and co-workers.

Cranny, Smith, & Stones (1) study of job satisfaction and job performance identified several factors that influence job satisfaction. They found that job satisfaction is substantially influenced by intrinsically rewarding conditions such as interesting work, challenge, and autonomy. To a lesser extent, they found that extrinsic rewards, such as pay and security, also influence job satisfaction. They did not find any direct evidence that job performance directly influences job satisfaction, although it indirectly affected it through the consequences of greater rewards.

Edgar Schien suggests that the degree to which employees are willing to exert effort, commit to organisational goals and derive satisfaction from their work is dependant on two conditions

1. the extent to which employee expectations of what the organisation will give them and what they owe the organisation in return matches the organisation's expectations of what it will give and receive;

. assuming there is agreement on these expectations, the specific nature of what is exchanged (e.g. effort for pay)

The mutual expectations regarding exchanges constitute part of the psychological contract. The psychological contract is an unwritten agreement between the individual and the organisation, which specifies what each, expects to give to and receive from the other. (Ivancevich et al. 1 14)

As discussed previously Herzbergs theory and research suggests that job dissatisfaction is caused by the absence of or deficits in hygiene factors such as salary, job security, working conditions, status, company policies, quality of supervision, and quality of interpersonal relationships. These factors, although they can cause job dissatisfaction if deficient, do not result in job satisfaction if present. Rather, according to Herzberg, it is the motivation factors intrinsic to a job and related to job content that have the power to increase job satisfaction. Motivation factors include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, the work itself, and possibility of growth.

The graph below shows a composite of the factors that are involved in causing job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction, drawn from samples of 1685 employees.

Graph XX Factors affecting job attitudes as reported in 1 investigations

Factors characterising 1844 events on the job that led to extreme dissatisfaction Factors characterising 175 events on the job that led to extreme satisfaction

Percentage frequency 50% 40% 0% 0% 10% 0% 10% 0% 0% 40% 50%

Achievement

Recognition

Work Itself

Resposibility

Advancement

Growth

Cpy policy & admin

Supervision

Relationship with supervisor

Work conditions

Salary

Relationship with peers All factors contributing to Job dissatisfaction All factors contributing to Job satisfaction

Personal Life

Relationship with subordinates 6 Hygiene 1

Status 1 Motivators 81

Security 80% 60% 40% 0% 0% 0% 40% 60% 80%

Ratio and percent

The results indicate that motivators were the primary cause of unhappiness on the job. The employees studied in 1 different investigations included a wide variety of positions, levels and occupations. They were asked what job events had occurred in their work that had led to extreme satisfaction or extreme dissatisfaction on their part.

As the lower right hand part of the graph shows, of all the factors contributing to job satisfaction, 81% were motivators. And of all the factors contributing to the employees' dissatisfaction over their work, 6% involved hygiene elements.

(Sourced HBR article by Frederick Herzberg, One more time How do you Motivate Employees? September-October 187)

Eskew and Heneman (16) found in surveying compensation amongst professionals that pay based on merit is seen as being only marginally successful in influencing employees attitudes and behavior. Kovach (15) found that although supervisors believe that good salaries were very important to employees, the employees themselves report that interesting work is the most important. Ettore (14) reported that job satisfaction is more important to both men and women than any other job- related factor, including financial remuneration.

Filipczak (16) and Merit (15) discuss the need to recognize that money is not high in its relation to job satisfaction or employee motivation, and that Herzbergs Motivation- Hygiene Theory of satisfaction versus dissatisfaction on the job needs to be taken into account when looking at motivators for employees. They suggest that while correcting inadequate wages, poor company policy, poor supervision, or lack of job security can reduce employee dissatisfaction, only intrinsic motivators (such as recognition, interesting and challenging work, and opportunities for advancement) can serve to increase satisfaction.

Burke and McKeen (15a) found in studying managerial and professional women that those working in male- dominated organizations have lower job satisfaction than those working in organizations with fewer men at the higher levels of management. They speculated that exclusion from the boys club network or the feeling of being an outsider might be relevant factors. Burke and McKeen (15b) in another study report that while a increasing proportion of accountants are women, they do not seem to be obtaining the rank of partner at the same rate, as what men do. They found that women accountants with more gaps in employment reported less job satisfaction and less job involvement.

Dodd-McKue and Wright (16) found in studying accountants that women are less committed to their organizations and are less satisfied; and they suggest that womens under- representation in upper management, as well their job satisfaction, involvement, and commitment, could be increased by altering factors within an organisations control.

Barry Staw and his co-workers reviewed the extent to which personality could affect job satisfaction. It was determined that individuals who hold a more positive and enthusiastic view will also report greater job satisfaction. Staw argues that his findings have important organisation implications and that selection rather than organisational programs are the key to obtaining a satisfied workforce.

Several criticisms can be made of Staw's research. Newton and Keenan reported individuals who, over time, remained with the same employer reported stable levels of anger, frustration, hostility, alienation and job satisfaction, however those who changed employers reported decreases in these with a corresponding increase in job satisfaction.

Gerhart showed that by including a range of situational factors such as pay, status and job complexity, situational factors are able to predict job satisfaction. He also demonstrated that the correlation between affect and job satisfaction was highest when individuals stayed in the same occupation with the same employer and vice versa. These findings suggest that Staw's results can be explained in terms of an older and more stable work group.

Therefore, organisations should be concerned with conditions of employment and organisational programs, such as job redesign that are aimed at improving the quality of working life. (Ivancevich et al. 1 75)

??Lawson Savery (11) assessed the extent to which men and women differ in their expectations of the workplace, by using staff in a government department. His findings showed that women want greater job security and that men want better promotion prospects, more opportunities to lead, greater responsibility and higher social status. Women and men do not differ in pay, challenge, interest, working hours, autonomy, variety, opportunities for learning, cooperation from others and career development. (Ivancevich et al. 1 18)

Trist and Bamworth (151) advocated a proper balance between social and technical systems to achieve optimal productivity. Trist and other researchers from the Tavistock Institute for Social Research in the UK identified the following psychological requirements as critical to worker motivation and satisfaction;

1. The content of each job must be reasonably demanding or challenging and provide some variety.

. Performing the job must have perceivable, desirable consequences.

. Workers should be able to see how the lives of other people are affected by what they do.

4. Workers must have some decision-making authority.

5. Workers must be able to learn from the job and go on learning.

6. Workers need the opportunity to give and receive help

As employees of ANZ Banking Group (ANZ), there are extensive staff programs in operation and gradually increasing to meet the needs of the employees. These programs have been put in place in more recent times to build upon job satisfaction and overall satisfaction with ANZ.

These programs include, but are not limited to;

§ Staff Share scheme Bonus shares, dependent on annual results

§ Share acquisition plan Discounted shares and salary sacrifice

§ Pay for Performance Individual contracts for managers

§ Family friendly initiatives Paid maternity leave, parental leave, career breaks etc.

§ Bright Ideas 10% reward for savings identified and suggested

§ AAA Projects Rewards for Improvements made to processes

§ PC's at Home Package Discounted home computers

§ Staff Foundation Community involvement

§ Greening of the environment

From personal experiences these programs have had a significant impact on our job satisfaction. We can also relate to times prior to these programs when such programs were non existent.

In such a large organisation, we know of fellow employees who even with these programs are not satisfied with their job, due to their current role, manager and/or circumstances and generally are not highly productive. However, we both currently have a high level of job satisfaction, as along with these programs have fulfilling roles, which we enjoy. As a result are both highly motivated and productive. Although, we can relate to times when this has not been the situation.

The whole idea of job satisfaction is a moving target. For many people, how satisfied they feel is a complex interplay of whats happening in their personal and business lives.

Job expectations also play into the elusive nature of job satisfaction. To find out the levels of job satisfaction amongst their employees, some companies administer employee surveys. These surveys ask how people feel about their supervisors, their work environment, promotions and career training, the quality & level of communication, and the salary and benefits package. These factors are all part of overall job satisfaction.

Annual staff surveys as well as Snapshot surveys are conducted at ANZ to measure the various factors discussed above. These surveys are quite extensive with questions aimed at an individual level, as well as team and organisation level. (See Appendices)

5. Relationship with productivity

The study of job satisfaction and its relationship to job performance is one of the most widely debated and controversial issues. There are three general views satisfaction causes performance; performance causes satisfaction; and the satisfaction-performance relationship is moderated by other variables such as rewards. (Ivancevich et al. 1 )

There is minimal research to support the first two views. There are extensive studies dealing with the performance-satisfaction relationship, of which a review of twenty of these studies found a low association between performance and satisfaction. The evidence is clear that a satisfied worker is not necessarily a high performer and vice versa. (Ivancevich et al. 1 )

The numerous motivational theories provide managers with tools for directing the energy of employees towards the accomplishment of organisational goals, however the individual's willingness to perform is only one side of the psychological contract. Managers and their organisations must ensure individuals have the capacity and opportunity to perform, to optimise job performance.

Vroom's theory refers to an effort-performance expectancy, which represents the individual's perception of how hard it will be to achieve a particular behaviour and the probability of achieving that behaviour. There is also a performance-outcome expectancy, where in an individual's mind every behaviour is associated with outcomes e.g. reward (Ivancevich et al. 1 11). Therefore, suggesting performance leads to satisfaction, but satisfaction does not lead to performance.

The below table shows the significance of environmental factors for employees with different degrees of job satisfaction. This data indicates that very dissatisfied employees continue to stay because of financial considerations, family responsibilities, lack of outside opportunities, age etc.

? Such reasons for staying are self-defeating and hardly could be considered right. These turn offs have not yet affected turnover statistics, but still they may be having just as severe, or even a more severe, effect on the company.

These employees see themselves as so locked in by the environment that they have little alternative but to stay; and, therefore, the possibility of reduced productivity or behavior antagonistic to the organization is great.

Skill Level Job Satisfaction Level

Reasons for staying Low Moderate Manager Very Low Low High

I wouldn't want to rebuild most of the benefits that I have now if I left the company 7% 64% 6% 76% 6% 44%

I have family responsibilities 6% 55% 46% 76% 7% 44%

I have good personal friends here at work 57% 45% 4% 5% 45% 8%

The company's been good to me and I don't believe in jumping from company to company 57% 5% 41% 4% % 58%

I'm working to make ends meet and I don't want to take the risks in a new job 57% 6% 8% 5% 5% 1%

I wouldn't like to look for a job on the outside 5% % 1% 5% % 0%

I'm a little too old for starting over again 46% 5% 14% 41% 4% 0%

I wouldn't like to start all over learning the policies of a new company % 0% % 5% 7% 17%

I like to live in this area 0% 1% 58% 5% 8% 7%

Difficult to find a job 58% 4% 47% 5% 5% 4%

According to Cranny, Smith, & Stone (1), the methods researchers used to study performance and satisfaction influence the conclusions reached about their relationship. They suggest that correlational studies have shown moderate relationships at best, while intervention research suggests a stronger relationship. Katzell & Guzzo (18), for example, reviewed 07 studies of the effects of psychologically based interventions on productivity and performance, and reported that 87 percent of the interventions were successful in raising productivity (as well as job satisfaction).

Another example of the inconsistencies of the various conclusions that can be formed from studies or surveys relates to the Lucent Technology Job satisfaction (See Appendices) where an interesting outcome becomes clear from the results. "Non-monetary recognition of achievement, though rated next to last in importance, is the strongest indicator of high overall job satisfaction. "

Other recent studies have discussed the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. DeConinck and Stilwell (16) found in studying female advertising executives that job satisfaction is a significant predictor of organizational commitment; and Becker, Billings, Eveleth, & Gilbert (16) found that organizational commitment as targeted at supervisors was positively related to performance. Keller, Julian, & Kidia (16) found in studying research and development teams that satisfaction with pay, advancement, and supervision was related to an increase in patent acquisition, technical quality ratings, and publication of articles.

? Hackman, Oldham, Janson and Purdy devised the job characteristics model, which also shows some linkage between satisfaction and performance. This model grew out of attempts to measure individual perceptions of job content, which identified the five core components of jobs, being skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The model attempts to account for interrelationships among certain job characteristics; psychological states associated with motivation, satisfaction and performance; job outcomes; and growth need strength. (Ivancevich et al. 1 16-170)

There is no simple, all-encompassing set of guidelines on how to motivate employees, which leads to job satisfaction and productivity, however the following suggestions will assist greatly;

§ Recognise Individual differences

§ Match people to jobs

§ Use Goals

§ Ensure that Goals are perceived as attainable

§ Individualise Rewards

§ Link Rewards to Performance

§ Check the system for Equity

§ Don't ignore money!

(Robbins 1 5-60)

6. Conclusion

We have discussed a number of theories and case studies in this document and referred to numerous articles, to find there is no simple way of determining or managing job satisfaction within organisations. There are extensive articles on job satisfaction and numerous influencing factors, with some links between job satisfaction and productivity, however there is no clear evidence of any direct relationship.

Herzberg's theory is the closest theory to supporting job satisfaction, but in itself is actually a motivation theory??.

The importance of job satisfaction to the dynamics of the workforce has made it one of the most widely discussed and researched topics in management. Although research over time has provided inconsistent results about the relationship between job satisfaction and other work- related attitudes and behaviours such as job performance, there has been work done to refine and standardize the way in which job satisfaction is defined and measured.

We therefore conclude that there is no direct relationship between job satisfaction and productivity

7. References

1. Douthit, M. (1) 'Job Satisfaction Returns to Human and Social Capital', The Journal of Behavioural an Applied Management, Vol 1(1), pp.67.

. Flowers, V. & Hughes, C. (17) 'Why Employees Stay?', Harvard Business Review, Harvard College, USA.

. Herzberg, F. (187) 'One More Time How Do You Motivate Employees?', Harvard Business Review, Harvard College, USA.

4. Ivancevich, J., Olekalns, M. & Matteson, M. (1) Organisational Behaviour and Management, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.

5. Ott, J. (ed) (16), Classic Readings in Organisational Behaviour, nd edn, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

6. Robbins, S. (1), Essentials of Organisational Behaviour, rd edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

8. Appendices

Case Study - Lucent Technologies

Overall, two-thirds of networking professionals are satisfied with their current jobs, leaving the remaining third dissatisfied. This outcome is an improvement from the survey conducted in 18, where only 56% of respondents were satisfied with their jobs, and 44% were unsatisfied. In fact, nearly one-quarter (%) of respondents in 1 describe themselves as very satisfied with their current job, compared to only 17% one year ago. Clearly, something good has been happening over the past year for networking professionals, although there is still much room for improvement.

When viewed by the size of the company in which respondents work, overall job satisfaction is fairly consistent until we reach companies with 0,000 or more employees. Here we see a significant (approximately 10%) drop-off in job satisfaction. Four job factors appear to be the cause of this lower job satisfaction level type of work, non-monetary recognition of achievement, compensation package, and balanced work week. For each of these contributors to overall job satisfaction, 11%-15% fewer respondents from companies with 0,000 or more employees are satisfied than respondents from companies with fewer than 0,000 employees.

Taken from another viewpoint, job function also plays a role in overall job satisfaction. Curiously, IT managers and directors are both the most likely to say that they are very satisfied with their current job (%) and most likely to be completely dissatisfied with their current job (15%), perhaps a reflection of both the increased stresses and rewards that these positions offer. IT consultants, on the other hand, are as likely as IT managers and directors to be dissatisfied with their current job (5%), but considerably fewer are very satisfied with their current job (4%). Technical staff other than network administrators (who are least likely to be satisfied with their current jobs) have, on average, the highest overall satisfaction with their current jobs, with a satisfaction rating of .0 on a scale of 1-4, where 4 is very satisfied.

Overall job satisfaction of network professionals is not significantly influenced by either the length of time with their current employer or length of time in the networking industry, although professionals who are new to their job or the profession tend to have slightly higher overall job satisfaction.

There are many factors that contribute to the satisfaction a network professional derives from his/her job. These factors range from opportunities for growth and responsibility, to compensation and monetary reward practices, to vacation and flex-time policies. Each of these plays a role to a greater or lesser extent in forming overall job satisfaction. When we asked respondents to tell us how important 15 different job factors are to the satisfaction they would get from an ideal job, the opportunity to learn new skills was at the top of the list, along with achievement opportunities, type of work, and professional growth opportunities. The importance of a compensation package is only sixth on the list, and monetary recognition of achievement a distant 10th.

Clearly, network professionals demand more from their work than money; foremost they want challenge and the ability to move ahead. They are even willing to work longer hours (the importance of a balanced work week is 1th in importance) to achieve those goals.

Network professionals satisfaction with the same set of job factors shows a different picture entirely. On this measure, relationships with co-workers and supervisors, along with vacation policy, take three of the top four slots for satisfaction. However, type of work, which is third in importance, is second in satisfaction, and opportunity to take responsibility, which is fifth in importance, is also fifth in satisfaction. On these two important yardsticks, companies appear to be doing a good job. On the other hand, 6% of respondents indicate that compensation packages are important, but four out of ten are dissatisfied with their compensation package.

7. References

1. Douthit, M. (1) 'Job Satisfaction Returns to Human and Social Capital', The Journal of Behavioural an Applied Management, Vol 1(1), pp.67.

. Flowers, V. & Hughes, C. (17) 'Why Employees Stay?', Harvard Business Review, Harvard College, USA.

. Herzberg, F. (187) 'One More Time How Do You Motivate Employees?', Harvard Business Review, Harvard College, USA.

4. Ivancevich, J., Olekalns, M. & Matteson, M. (1) Organisational Behaviour and Management, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.

5. Ott, J. (ed) (16), Classic Readings in Organisational Behaviour, nd edn, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

6. Robbins, S. (1), Essentials of Organisational Behaviour, rd edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Please note that this sample paper on Organisational Behaviour is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Organisational Behaviour, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Organisational Behaviour will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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